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Project 2
PROJECT A 1.Pathological Condition:Gastric Ulcer/Stomach Ulcer a)Stomach is the major part of the digestive system. The stomach is a J-shaped organ that digests food. It produces enzymes (substances that create chemical reactions) and acids (digestive juices). This mix of enzymes and digestive juices breaks down food…
ADVAITH MENON
updated on 02 Sep 2022
PROJECT A
1.Pathological Condition:Gastric Ulcer/Stomach Ulcer
a)Stomach is the major part of the digestive system.
The stomach is a J-shaped organ that digests food. It produces enzymes (substances that create chemical reactions) and acids (digestive juices). This mix of enzymes and digestive juices breaks down food so it can pass to your small intestine.
Your stomach is part of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The GI tract is a long tube that starts at your mouth. It runs to your anus, where stool (poop) leaves your body. The GI tract is a key part of your digestive enzymes.
Your stomach’s purpose is to digest food and send it to your small intestine. It has three functions:
- Temporarily store food.
- Contract and relax to mix and break down food.
- Produce enzymes and other specialized cells to digest food.
Your stomach has five distinct sections:
- The cardia is the top part of your stomach. It contains the cardiac sphincter, which prevents food from traveling back up your esophagus.
- The fundus is a rounded section next to the cardia. It's below your diaphragm (the dome-shaped muscle that helps you breathe).
- The body (corpus) is the largest section of your stomach. In the body, your stomach contracts and begins to mix food.
- The antrum lies below the body. It holds food until your stomach is ready to send it to your small intestine.
- The pylorus is the bottom part of your stomach. It includes the pyloric sphincter. This ring of tissue controls when and how your stomach contents move to your small intestine.
b)The term 'peptic ulcer' is used to describe ulcers that are caused by too much acid in the stomach. This includes stomach ulcers and also ulcers in the first part of the gut (small intestine) known as the duodenum.
he main symptom caused by a stomach ulcer is having a pain in the upper tummy (abdomen). Other common symptoms may include:
- Bloating. This means your tummy swells because your stomach is full of gas or air.
- Retching. Also known as 'heaving'. This means sounding and looking as though you're about to be sick (vomit) but not actually vomiting.
- Feeling sick (nausea).
- Vomiting.
- Feeling very 'full' after a meal.
c)
There are several causes of stomach ulcer such as:
- H. pylori (bacteria) infection: This happens to be the most common cause.
- Drugs : Another common culprit are the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) which include the likes of diclofenac, ibuprofen and naproxen commonly used in the management of pain; aspirin often taken to prevent clot perforation and hence prevention of stroke; and the illicit drug, cocaine, can cause stomach ulcer.
- Major physiological stress as seen after trauma and burns.
- Psychological stress
- Gastric stasis
- Heavy alcohol binge
- Smoking
- Gastric cancer
d)Homeostasis Change:Gastric Ulcer or Peptic Ulcer in its early stages is easily curable and rarely affect the homeostasis of the body in any serious way but when it's left untreated ,it can be life threathning and also can affect the body's homesatic conditio in a very impactful way.for example :Bleeding from the ulcer site can make it life threatning,also penetration can occur which which cause the ulcer to spread to other organs,perforation can occur which produces a hole in the diigestive tract which in turn can negatively affect the digestive process and last but not the least obstruction can happen,which is a blockage in the digestive tractdue to swelling from the inflammaton.All of these affect the body's homeostasis in a serious way.
2.a)Barium Swallow:
A barium swallow is a special type of X-ray test that helps your doctor take a close look at the back of your mouth and throat, known as the pharynx, and the tube that extends from the back of the tongue down to the stomach, known as the esophagus.
Your doctor may ask you to do a barium swallow to help diagnose any conditions that make it difficult for you to swallow or if they suspect that you have a disorder of the upper gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Your upper GI tract includes:
- the esophagus
- the stomach
- the first part of the small intestine, called the duodenum
To do a barium swallow, you swallow a chalky white substance known as barium. It’s often mixed with water to make a thick drink that looks like a milkshake. When it’s swallowed, this liquid coats the inside of your upper GI.
Barium absorbs X-rays and looks white on X-ray film. This helps highlight these organs, as well as their inside linings and the motion of your swallowing, on the X-ray image. These images help your doctor diagnose any disorders of the GI tract.
2.b)ECD
The word endoscopy is derived from the Greek words endon, meaning "within," and skopein, meaning "view." Endoscopy of the digestive system is called EGD (esophagogastroduodenoscopy).
An endoscopy is a medical procedure that uses a tube (an endoscope) to look inside the body. Doctors use it to look at the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, colon, rectum, and other parts of the digestive system. Each type of endoscope is designed for a different organ.
This non-surgical procedure involves inserting an endoscope, which has a light and camera on the end, into the body. Doctors insert this thin, flexible tube into the body through a natural orifice (typically, the mouth) or via an incision in the skin. An endoscope is a dual-use device, meaning specialists can use it to perform a medical examination of the stomach lining or organs within the body and to deliver therapy to an organ.
b)by what is seen n the XRay taken during Barium swallow test and what is seen in real time during ECD as there is a camera attached to the end of the endoscope.
c)The doctor can categorize the severeness of the gastric ulcer,ieit can be the early or the mild stage where it can be easily curable and has very lower risk,but if the ulcer is at a severe stage then it has to surgicallyb oprated or immediate action must be taken.
d)Depending o the results of the test , the doctor might prescribe you medication or an antiobiotic course which the patient has to follow or if the condition is severe then the wil opt for surgical removal of the ulcer
3.a)As stated earlier if the condition is not severe and is in the mild stages
If your stomach ulcer is the result of H. pylori, you’ll need antibiotics and drugs called proton pmp inhibitors. PPIs block the stomach cells that produce acid.
In addition to these treatments, your doctor may also recommend:
- H2 Receptor Blockers (drugs that also block acid production)
- stopping use of all NSAIDs
- follow-up endoscopy
- probiotics (useful bacteria that may have a role in killing off H. pylori)
- bismuth supplement
Symptoms of an ulcer may subside quickly with treatment. But even if your symptoms disappear, you should continue to take any medication prescribed by your doctor. This is especially important with H. pylori infections, to make sure that all bacteria are eliminated.
Side effects of medications used to treat stomach ulcers can include:
- nausea
- dizziness
- headaches
- diarehea
- abdominal pain
These side effects are typically temporary. If any of these side effects cause extreme discomfort, talk to your doctor about changing your medication.
b)There are three typews of sugery done forthe correction of gastric ulcers:
1)Laprotomy
2)Minimally invasive laproscopic surgery
3)Endoscopic procedure
4..a)Name of the surgery is:laprotomy
b)Supine position
c)
The laparotomy procedure involves making incisions into the abdominal wall to gain access to the intra abdominal organs. Depending on the organ to be accessed, incisions can be of different types. The standard incision also known as the midline incision runs through the linea alba. The Paramedian incision runs on the side of the midline and can be used to access kidneys and adrenal glands. Pfannenstiel incision is a cut below the umbilicus and is required to access the pelvic region. A transverse or horizontal incision is often preferred by surgeons as it deals less damage to the nerve vessels and blood vessels and also heals comparatively faster. Apart from this, the subcostal and Chevron incisions are made to treat the liver and the spleen.
Laparotomy provides access to the intra abdominal organs or space. Through laparotomy, the digestive tract ( stomach, duodenum, ileum, jejunum, and colon), the retroperitoneal organs ( kidneys, aorta, adrenal glands, and the lymph nodes ), the liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, and the urinary bladder can be diagnosed and treated. In the case of males the prostate and for females the uterus and the ovary can also be treated with laparotomy. Laparotomy is extensively used by surgeons to treat abdominal disorders such as abdominal pain, abdominal trauma, peritonitis, abdominal infections, damaged or perforated intra abdominal organs. Laparotomy can also be used to check the spread of cancer or endometriosis in the abdominal regions.
d)The basic laparotomy set includes all the essential instruments for the laparotomy. All instruments are unique and ideal for laparotomy practices. All these instruments are crafted with high-quality German surgical stainless material. Some instruments also have a combination of tungsten carbide.
The laparotomy method requires a longer recovery. Thus, the instruments suitable for this method are not as usual as other surgeries. This set includes retractors, suction tubes, Gall duct forceps, needle holders, and many more. All the instruments are ideal and suitable for this surgical procedure.
5.
As people can undergo a laparotomy for a wide range of reasons, the recovery time can vary significantly among individuals. Many other factors, including the person’s age and overall health, will also determine how long it takes them to feel better.
People can take steps at home to rest and allow their body to recover. These include:
- resting as much as possible for days to weeks, depending on the doctor’s recommendation
- continuing to move around and do any exercises that a doctor has set
- getting other people to help around the home and with daily tasks, where possible
- following all dietary guidelines from a doctor
- taking medication as a doctor prescribes
- avoiding all heavy lifting, including pulling or pushing items, sexual activity, and swimming for 6 weeks
It is usual to feel tired with low energy during recovery, as the body is healing. It is also quite common to experience a wide range of emotions and have difficulty sleeping.
People may be unable to drive during recovery, either because they are allowing their body to heal or due to the medications that they are taking. A person can check with their doctor and inform their insurance company if this is the case.
It is important to contact a doctor as soon as possible if any signs or symptoms of infection appear around the wound site. These may include:
- increased pain or tenderness
- redness
- swelling
- discharge from the wound site
- fever or chills
- vomiting or nausea
People should also seek medical help straight away if they have any symptoms of a blood clot, including:
- difficulty breathing
- chest pain
- severe leg pain
People can carefully follow the doctor’s instructions and ensure that they have a final checkup at the end of their recovery period.
6.
a)Endoscope=used to view the area of concern and also if possible take
b)x ray=It is used to visualise the upper GI Tract once the the patient ingests barium\
2.Pathological Conditon:Urianry/Bladder Cancer
a)Bladder is a flexible hollow pouch like structure present within the pelvis and it stores the urine prior to its excretion. Urine is prepared by the kidneys and is carried to the bladder through the ureters. This urine is stored in bladder and it is later discharged through a tube like structure known as the urethra.
b)Bladder cancer is a common type of cancer that begins in the cells of the bladder. The bladder is a hollow muscular organ in your lower abdomen that stores urine.
Bladder cancer most often begins in the cells (urothelial cells) that line the inside of your bladder. Urothelial cells are also found in your kidneys and the tubes (ureters) that connect the kidneys to the bladder. Urothelial cancer can happen in the kidneys and ureters, too, but it's much more common in the bladder.
Most bladder cancers are diagnosed at an early stage, when the cancer is highly treatable. But even early-stage bladder cancers can come back after successful treatment. For this reason, people with bladder cancer typically need follow-up tests for years after treatment to look for bladder cancer that recurs
c)it affects males more frequently than females. The possible risk factors leading to such a condition include genetic or family history, chronic inflammation of the bladder, smoking, some medications for treating diabetes, exposure to harmful chemicals, prior chemotherapy or radiation treatment and others.
d)This cancer is defined as a condition in which there is rapid and uncontrolled growth of cancerous cells within the urinary bladder. This condition usually starts from the lining of the bladder and later it spread into the muscular wall of the urinary bladder. Moreover, invasive urinary bladder cancer can spread to lymph nodes, kidneys, lungs, liver and other organs present in the pelvis.
Hence it can affect the urianry system and later on if its malignant, then it may spread to other vital organs
2.
a)
- Using a scope to examine the inside of your bladder (cystoscopy). To perform cystoscopy, your doctor inserts a small, narrow tube (cystoscope) through your urethra. The cystoscope has a lens that allows your doctor to see the inside of your urethra and bladder, to examine these structures for signs of disease. Cystoscopy can be done in a doctor's office or in the hospital.
- During a CT urogram, a contrast dye injected into a vein in your hand eventually flows into your kidneys, ureters and bladder. X-ray images taken during the test provide a detailed view of your urinary tract and help your doctor identify any areas that might be cancer.
b) Cytscopy:In terms of the cytoscopy,the lens or camera presnt the at the end of the cytoscope allows the doctor to view the abnormalites present in the bladder(if any)
CT:During a CT scan, you lie in a tunnel-like machine while the inside of the machine rotates and takes a series of X-rays from different angles.
These pictures are then sent to a computer, where they’re combined to create images of slices, or cross-sections, of the body. They may also be combined to produce a 3-D image of a particular area of the body.
c)The doctor identifies the whereabouts and the severeity of the tumuor using the data recieved from thhe the test that have been specified above so that he/she can move foward with the necessary course of treatment.
3.a)Cancer at any stage is taken to be serious but at its earlies stages it s much more easy to eradicate or terminate the tumuor.
The drug usually used for intravesical immunotherapy is bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG). The most common drug used for intravesical chemotherapy is mitomycin (Mutamycin).
If bladder cancer is classified as low or intermediate risk, a single treatment of intravesical chemotherapy may be given within 24 hours of a TURBT.
If bladder cancer is intermediate risk, intravesical BCG or intravesical chemotherapy is often given for 6 weeks. If bladder cancer is high risk, intravesical BCG is given once a week for 6 weeks. This 6 weeks of treatment is called induction therapy.
b)Surgery is the first treatment for early stage bladder cancer.
A transurethral resection of bladder tumour (TURBT) removes tumours from the bladder through the urethra. It is a standard surgery for early stage bladder cancer in any risk group. A TURBT is usually done during diagnosis. It may be the only treatment needed. Sometimes another TURBT is done to make sure all the cancer is removed.
A cystectomy removes all or part of the bladder. It is not usually used for early stage bladder cancer, but it may be offered for bladder cancer that is classified as high risk. It may also be used if other treatments haven’t worked. A radical cystectomy to remove the whole bladder is most commonly done. Once the bladder is removed, urinary diversion surgery is needed to make a new way to hold urine (pee) and pass it out of the body.
4.
a)Name of the surgery:transurethral resection of bladder tumour ,cystectomy.
b)The patient is made to lay in supinal postion
c)surgery:transurethral resection of bladder tumour
At the start of the procedure, you will be given a numbing drug (anesthetic). Generally, two options are available: general anesthesia where you take a nap for the entire procedure, or local anesthesia, where you remain awake, but are given a drug through a needle in your back to numb the lower half of your body.
During a TURBT procedure, the surgeon inserts a tool called a resectoscope through the urethra to reach the inside of your bladder. This tool has a surgical loop on it that resects or cuts off a sample of tumor tissue to be analyzed by a pathologist, or resects the entire tumor from your bladder (if it's small enough). TURBT is used as a treatment for patients with early-stage bladder cancer, and is typically followed by intravesical therapy
b)Cystectomy (sis-TEK-tuh-me) is a surgery to remove the urinary bladder.
The procedure to remove the entire bladder is called a radical cystectomy. In men, this typically includes removal of the prostate and seminal vesicles. In women, radical cystectomy usually includes removal of the uterus, ovaries, fallopian tubes and part of the vagina.
After removing your bladder, your surgeon also needs to create a new way to store urine and have it leave your body. This is called urinary diversion. Your surgeon will discuss the options for urinary diversion that may be appropriate for you.
A radical cystectomy is performed to treat cancer that has invaded muscle tissue of the bladder or recurrent noninvasive bladder cancer. A partial cystectomy, although rarely performed, is used to remove a cancerous tumor in an isolated portion of the bladder. A simple cystectomy — removal of only the bladder — may be a treatment for noncancerous (benign) conditions.
c)TURBT: resectoscope=an instrument with a telescope and small, electrified wire loop
cystectomy:cystoscope=offered is designed to perform cystoscopies without needing to wait for equipment to pass through automated reprocessing cycle and are able to perform cystoscopies in any setting.
5.
After surgery, you will be moved to a post-operative recovery room, where you will continue to be observed following surgery as you are waking up. After you are sufficiently awake, you will be transferred to your hospital room.Vital signs and inspection of the surgical area for any signs of bleeding or infection will continue after surgery. A typical hospital stay following a cystectomy is usually five to seven days.
A cystectomy is major surgery, and recovery can take some time. Be sure to follow all instructions as provided by your surgeon to help speed recovery and healing.
Healing
The skin where the incisions were made may be discolored or bruised due to bleeding during the procedure. Inspect the surgical incisions frequently to make sure there are no signs of infection. These signs can include:4
- Redness around the incision
- Yellow drainage or pus from the incision
- Warmth of the skin around the incision
- Swelling at the surgical site
- Fever or chills
Coping with Recovery
Recovery from a cystectomy can take some time, especially if a radical cystectomy was done. Full recovery from this surgery may take months.
Recovery from a partial cystectomy may not take as long.
6.
a)Cystoscope:it is an instruments with a lens in the end to provde images of the urinar bladder
CT Machine:It is used to produce X-Ray images of the patient from different angles
PROJECT B:
Pathological Condition:Myocardial Infraction
a)Heart :
The heart is a muscular organ situated in the chest just behind and slightly toward the left of the breastbone. It roughly measures the size of a closed fist. The heart works all the time, pumping blood through the network of blood vessels called the arteries and veins. The heart and its blood vessels are known as the cardiovascular system.
The heart has four chambers. The upper two chambers are called the atria, whereas the lower two chambers are known as the ventricles. The right atrium and right ventricle are referred to as the right heart, whereas the left atrium and left ventricle are referred to as the left heart. The various chambers of the heart are separated by partitions, each of which is called a septum.
- The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the right ventricle.
- The right ventricle gets blood from the right atrium and pumps it to the lungs to load it with oxygen.
- The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the left ventricle.
- The left ventricle is the strongest chamber of the heart. It pumps oxygen-rich blood to the rest of the body.
The flow of blood into the heart, within the heart chambers, and from the heart is guarded by the four valves present in the heart. The heart gets its nutrients and oxygen via the coronary arteries that run along the surface of the heart. It is also richly supplied by a web of nerve tissue that facilitates the rhythmic heartbeat. The heart is enclosed within a fluid-filled sac called the pericardium. The pericardium is a protective covering that produces fluid, which lubricates the heart and prevents friction between the heart and the surrounding organs.
b)Myocardial infaction:
Your heart is the main organ in your cardiovascular system, which also includes different types of blood vessels. Some of the most important vessels are the arteries. They take oxygen-rich blood to your body and all of your organs.
The coronary arteries take oxygen-rich blood specifically to your heart muscle. When these arteries become blocked or narrowed due to a buildup of plaque, the blood flow to your heart can decrease significantly or stop completely. This can cause a heart attack.
c)
- Atherosclerosis:
This is a disease in which the plaques build up against your arteries. Arteries carry oxygenated blood to the heart that regulates it to the rest of your body. The plaque is made up of cholesterol, fat, and other substances. Over a period of time, the plaque hardens and tightens the passage.
Atherosclerosis is caused by smoking, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol.
- Family History:
Risks are increased if there is a family history of heart disease or stroke that occurred in the family below the age of 55.
- Diabetes:
Over time, high levels of blood glucose can damage your blood vessels and the nerves that control your heart. The longer someone suffers from diabetes, the higher their chances of developing heart disease.
- Inactivity:
Being inactive doesn’t regulate the blood flow as the heart should. The heart then has to do extra work to provide you with the energy that you’re depriving yourself of. It’s advised to do at least 30 minutes of some activity like walking, jogging, and gardening every day to keep your heart healthy. The more inactive someone is, the weaker their heart becomes.
- Obesity:
One of the causes of Atherosclerosis, obesity puts your heart’s health at great risk. The more the fat, the more your heart gets ‘caged’ and is given the extra workload, thus causing high blood pressure.
- Smoking:
The chemicals in tobacco damage your blood cells. Your arteries tighten when you smoke, which makes the heart work harder than it should. Smoking also triggers heart rhythm and raises your blood pressure, which can cause a stroke.
- Drugs:
Excessive use of substances, also known as drugs, can cause dramatic changes in the neurological or biochemical state of a person. The drugs cause damage to your heart and its vessels, causing it to function irregularly and restrict some of its functions.
- Depression:
Depression prevents you from leading a healthy life. Excessive stress puts pressure on your heart, causing irregularity and the creation of clots that block the passageway of the blood flow.
- An autoimmune condition:
Having a condition such as lupus or rheumatoid arthritis increases the risk of a heart attack.
d)Myocardial infraction is a life threatning condition which stop the beating of the heart which in turn leads to haltage of blood circulation and in turn lead to stoppage of complete homeostasis
2.
a)ECG(Electrocardiogram),Angiogram
Anti-Platelets
Anti-platelet drugs are drugs that inhibit aggregation of platelets that lead to blood clot formation. The platelet aggregation is inhibited by targeting various agents involved in the normal regulation of platelet function. It includes prostaglandins, ADP, thrombin, collagen etc. The prominent anti-platelet drugs currently in clinical use exert its action by inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis (aspirin), inhibition of ADP-induced aggregation of platelets (ticlopidine, clopidogrel and prasugrel), and inhibition of the glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptors on platelets (abciximab, and tirofiban).
Prostaglandin Synthesis Inhibitors
Thromboxane A2 is a prostaglandin that causes platelets to aggregate. Aspirin inhibits the synthesis of thromboxane A2 by inhibiting cyclooxygenase enzyme irreversibly. Thereby aspirin prevents platelet aggregation and clot formation. This property of aspirin is unique. The other drugs related to aspirin (salicylates) do not inhibit cycloxygenase irreversibly and hence the anti-platelet effect is not strong like aspirin. Low dose aspirin (less than 325 mg/day) is used for prevention of myocardial infarction in people at risk. Use of aspirin is associated with gastric irritation, profuse bleeding following trivial injuries and precipitation of asthma attacks in sensitive individuals.
Platelet ADP-Receptor Inhibitors
Clopidogrel, prasugrel and ticlopidine irreversibly block the ADP receptor on platelets. This reduces the platelet aggregation and formation of clots. These drugs prevent ischemic events among patients with unstable angina pectoris. These drugs are also used to prevent thrombus formation in patients undergoing coronary stenting. Prevention of stroke in patients at risk is another important use for these drugs. Ticlopidine is associated with more adverse effects and is less preferred than clopidogrel. Ticlopidine is known to cause dyspepsia and diarrhea in large number of patients. It can occasionally cause serious reduction in white blood count. Clopidogrel is associated with fewer adverse effects than ticlopidine. The white blood count reduction with clopidogrel is a rare occurrence. Prasugrel is relatively a new drug and has been associated with higher incidence of bleeding.
Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa Receptor Inhibitors
Activation of the glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor is an important step for platelet aggregation. Inhibition of this receptor reduces platelet aggregation. The glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors are of use in patients with acute coronary syndromes and following PCI. Abciximab is a monoclonal antibody against the glycoprotein IIb/IIIa complex. It has been approved for use in percutaneous coronary intervention and in acute coronary syndromes. Tirofiban is another drug that targets glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor. These drugs are available only as injections.
Thrombolytics (Clot Busters)
Thrombolytics (clot busters or fibrinolytics) are drugs that break down the thrombus. Myocardial infarction results from blockade of one or more of the major vessels supplying blood to the heart muscles. The blockade is usually by a thrombus and immediate break down of the thrombus can restore the blood supply to the ischemic area. This can minimize the damage of the cardiac muscles caused by the ischemic event. Thrombolytics break down thrombus by enhancing formation of plasmin from plasminogen.
Thrombolytics are administered intravenously and are most beneficial if administered with in 6 hours of onset of the myocardial infarction. The various available thrombolytics are :
- streptokinase
- urokinase
- alteplase
- reteplase
- tenecteplase
Streptokinase is a protein produced by b-hemolytic streptococci. Streptokinase is associated with allergic reactions and is known to produce antibodies against it. A repeat use of streptokinase in same individual is likely to be less effective due to antibody formation. Streptokinase is less commonly used at present due to availability of newer and safer drugs. Urokinase is synthesized by the kidney that directly converts plasminogen to active plasmin. Alteplase, reteplase and tenecteplase are human tissue plasminogen activators (tPAs) produced by recombinant DNA technology. Human tPAs are more selective in its action and hence its actions are localized to the formed thrombus. This minimizes the tendency for bleeding complications. The thrombolytic therapy is indicated in patients with acute myocardial infarction which is confirmed on ECG. Streptokinase, urokinase and alteplase are given by intravenous infusion while reteplase and tenecteplase are given in bolus injections.
Thrombolytics are also of use in patients with acute ischemic stroke, pulmonary embolism and severe deep vein thrombosis. Thrombolytic use is associated with increased risk of bleeding. Bleeding is more common with streptokinase than with tissue plasminogen activators. Thrombolytic therapy is not indicated in patients who have undergone any major surgeries in last 10 days, suffering from bleeding disorders or major gastrointestinal bleeding in the past 3 months. It should also be avoided in patients with any active bleeding or history of hemorrhagic stroke.
b)Surgery:surgeries can be done for the correction or prevention of occurance of myocardial infraction eg:Bypass surgery
4.a)Bypass Surgery
b)Supine position
c)Procedure:
Your doctor will recommend a certain type of bypass surgery depending on how many of your arteries are blocked.
- Single bypass. Only one artery is blocked.
- Double bypass. Two arteries are blocked.
- Triple bypass. Three arteries are blocked.
- Quadruple bypass. Four arteries are blocked.
Your risk of having a heart attack, heart failure, or another cardiac issue depends on the number of arteries blocked. Blockage in more arteries also means that the surgery may take longer or become more complex.
Coronary bypass surgery redirects blood around a section of a blocked or partially blocked artery in your heart. The procedure involves taking a healthy blood vessel from your leg, arm or chest and connecting it below and above the blocked arteries in your heart. With a new pathway, blood flow to the heart muscle improves.Coronary bypass surgery doesn't cure the heart disease that caused the blockages, such as atherosclerosis or coronary artery disease. However, it can ease symptoms, such as chest pain and shortness of breath. For some people, this procedure can improve heart function and reduce the risk of dying of heart disease.
d
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5.
When you wake up from heart bypass surgery, you’ll have a tube in your mouth. You may also feel pain or have side effects from the procedure, including:
- pain at the incision site
- pain with deep breaths
- pain with coughing
You’ll likely be in the ICU for one to two days so your vital signs can be monitored. Once you’re stable, you’ll be moved to another room. Be prepared to stay in the hospital for several days.
Before you leave the hospital, your medical team will give you instructions on how to care for yourself, including:
- caring for your incision wounds
- getting plenty of rest
- refraining from heavy lifting
Even without complications, recovery from heart bypass surgery can take 6 to 12 weeks. That’s the least amount of time it takes for your breastbone to heal.
During this time, you should avoid heavy exertion. Follow your doctor’s orders regarding physical activity. Also, you shouldn’t drive until you get approval from your doctor.
Your doctor will likely recommend cardiac rehabilitation. This will involve a regimen of carefully monitored physical activity and occasional stress tests to see how your heart is healing.
6.ECG Machine:using the electrical impulses of the heart
angiogram=used to monitor the plaque formation in the blood vessels.
b)Pathological Condition:Stroke
1a)
The brain is one of the largest and most complex organs in the human body.
It is made up of more than 100 billion nerves that communicate in trillions of connections called synapses.
The brain is made up of many specialized areas that work together:
• The cortex is the outermost layer of brain cells. Thinking and voluntary movements begin in the cortex.
• The brain stem is between the spinal cord and the rest of the brain. Basic functions like breathing and sleep are controlled here.
• The basal ganglia are a cluster of structures in the center of the brain. The basal ganglia coordinate messages between multiple other brain areas.
• The cerebellum is at the base and the back of the brain. The cerebellum is responsible for coordination and balance.
The brain is also divided into several lobes:
• The frontal lobes are responsible for problem solving and judgment and motor function.
• The parietal lobes manage sensation, handwriting, and body position.
• The temporal lobes are involved with memory and hearing.
• The occipital lobes contain the brain's visual processing system.
b)Stroke:When the blood as well as oxygen supply to a certain part of brain tissue gets stopped,it then causes the death of that particular brain tissue, which can lead to severe voluntary impairment.
c)Blood clot or internal bleeding in the brain are main causes of stroke
d)The patient can lose the voluntary cntrol of may of the body parts permanently and also there are high chances of permanent brain damage,Hence it is life threatning
2.a)CT Scan(Computated tomography),MRI(Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
b)The data is aquired through the images which are produced froom conducting both these tests
c)From the images ,the doctor will check whether the patient's brain has any signs of block ,either in any of the blood vessels of the brain or any abnormalities present in the brin or not such as presence of a tumour,or whether the white matter and grey matter are in good condtion or not
d)Stroke is a life threatning disease and it has its severe complications, now that said, therev are medication available to prevent as well as minimise the damage done to the brain
Surgery:There are surgeries done to prevent the occurance of any stoke by removing the blood clot:Ischemic Stroke surgery
3.a)Medicatio:Aspirin is administered immmediately to remove the blood clot which have formed in the arteries .
b)Surgery:Isschemic Stroke Surgery is carried out ,The procedure is termed as mechanical embolectomy
4.
a)Name of the surgery is Mechanical Embolectomy
b)Supine Positon
c)An embolectomy is surgery to remove an embolus from an artery or vein. An embolus is part of a blood clot that broke free. It can travel through your bloodstream and become stuck in another area. This is called an embolism. An embolism can block blood flow to the area. An embolus in your vein can reach your lungs. This is called a pulmonary embolism, or PE. An embolus in your artery can reach your brain. This can cause a stroke. An embolus in a femoral artery in your leg can cause tissue death in the leg. An embolus in an artery in your abdomen can cause pain and vomiting. An embolectomy is used when medicines or procedures cannot be used, or are not successful.
- You may be given local anesthesia to numb the area so you do not feel pain. You may instead be given general anesthesia to keep you asleep and free from pain.
- The following are ways the embolus may be removed:
- A catheter embolectomy is a minimally invasive surgery. A catheter (thin tube) is guided into the vein or artery that has the embolus. Suction is used to remove the embolus through the catheter.
- A balloon embolectomy is also minimally invasive. A catheter with a balloon on the end is guided into the vein, past the clot. The balloon is inflated (filled) and pulled back out of the vein. The embolus comes back through the vein with the catheter. The balloon helps move the embolus and keep it from continuing into the vein.
- An open embolectomy is usually only done for a large embolus, most often to treat a PE. Your surgeon will make an incision in the skin over the embolus. He or she will open the vein or artery and remove the embolus.
- A filter may be placed to prevent another embolus from being able to travel through your body. Your surgeon will check that all of the embolus was removed. He or she may place a filter in the blood vessel. The filter helps prevent pieces of the embolus from continuing to travel. When blood flows freely, your surgeon will close the vein or artery. The incision area will be covered with a pressure bandage.
d)Instruments used in the surgery:Catheter,Stent,Russian Forceps,darsijin forceps etc
5.Post Surgery Care:
- You may have swelling or pain in the surgery area. You may be given medicines to reduce pain or swelling. You may need to stay in the hospital for up to 1 week, depending on where you had the embolectomy. You may need to lie still for several hours right after your surgery.
- Healthcare providers will help you walk around the same day of your surgery, or the day after. Movement will help prevent blood clots. You may also be given exercises to do in bed. Do not get out of bed on your own until your healthcare provider says you can. Ask before you get up the first time. You may need help to stand up safely.
- Healthcare providers will change the bandage over the embolectomy site as needed.
6.MRI:An MRI uses powerful radio waves and a magnetic field to create a detailed view of the brain. An MRI can detect brain tissue damaged by an ischemic stroke and brain hemorrhages. Your doctor may inject a dye into a blood vessel to view the arteries and veins and highlight blood flow (magnetic resonance angiography or magnetic resonance venography).
CT Scan:A CT scan uses a series of X-rays to create a detailed image of your brain. A CT scan can show bleeding in the brain, an ischemic stroke, a tumor or other conditions. Doctors may inject a dye into your bloodstream to view the blood vessels in the neck and brain in greater detail (computerized tomography angiography).
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