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Final Project: Design of an Electric Vehicle
Create a MATLAB model of electric car which uses a battery and a DC motor. Choose suitable blocks from Powertrain block set. Prepare a report about your model including following: Objectives: 1. System level configurations 2. Model parameters …
Somaraju Vijay Kumar
updated on 13 Feb 2023
Create a MATLAB model of electric car which uses a battery and a DC motor. Choose suitable blocks from Powertrain block set. Prepare a report about your model including following:
Objectives:
1. System level configurations
2. Model parameters
3. Results
4. Conclusion
Answer:
Introduction:
An electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle that uses one or more electric motors for propulsion. It can be powered by a collector system, with electricity from extravehicular sources, or it can be powered autonomously by a battery (sometimes charged by solar panels, or by converting fuel to electricity using fuel cells or a generator). EVs include, but are not limited to, road and rail vehicles, surface and underwater vessels, electric aircraft and electric spacecraft. For road vehicles, together with other emerging automotive technologies such as autonomous driving, connected vehicles and shared mobility, EVs form a future mobility vision called Connected, Autonomous, Shared and Electric (CASE) Mobility.
Basic Block Diagram of an EV
Drive Cycle :
Driving cycle is a velocity-time profile that describes driving characteristics of specific type of vehicles under. real-world driving condition, which is always used as a standard for the evaluation of vehicles' economy, emission. and driving range in vehicle industry.
Driver Controller :
To drive the drive cycle as per the given condition, a driver controller is present to run the vehicle taking the input and feedback to move from one place to another.
Motor :
The Specific Types of EV Motors. Beyond the categories of electric motors mentioned earlier, there are three types most often used in EVs: brushless asynchronous induction motors, brushed externally excited synchronous motors, and brushless permanent magnet synchronous motors.
Power Converter :
- Tire
- Vehicle Body
- Gear Box
- Dc Motor
- Battery
- Electrical Refernces
- Mechanical Rotational Reference
- H-Bridge
- Controlled PWM Voltage
- Current Sensor
- Controlled Current Source
- Controlled Voltage Source
- Multiport Switch
- Drive Cycle Source
- Signal Builder
- DC-DC Converter
- Longitudinal Drive
- Scope
- Simlink PS Converter
- Display
- Intergrator
- TIRE (MAGIC FORMULA)
- S-Tire of Slip
- H- Hub of the vehicle / chasis
- A-Accleration
- N-Force
The magic tire block models a tire with longitudinal behaviour which is given by a magic formula an empirical equation based on four fitting coefficients. Under constant or variable pavement conditions this block can model tire dynamics. The longitudinal direction of the tire is same as the direction of motion as it rolls on the pavement.
Connection A is referred to the mechanical rotational conserving port for the wheel axle. Connection H is the mechanical translational conserving port for the wheel hub through which the thrust is developed by the tire which is applied to the wheel. Connection N is a physical signal input port that applies the normal force acting on the tire. If it is acting downwards the force is considered positive. Connection S is a physical signal output port reveals the tire slip.
Vehicle Body :
- H - Hub of the vehicle / chasis
- V - vehicle velocity
- w - wind effect
- NR - rear force
- Nf- nominal force for front wheel
- Beta- terrain inclination angle
This vehicle body block is a representation of a two – axle vehicle body in longitudinal motion. The vehicle can have the same or different number of wheels on each axle. The vehicle can have a centre of gravity that is at or below the plane of travel. This block accounts for body mass, aerodynamic drag, road incline and weight distribution between axles due to acceleration and road profile which optionally includes pitch and suspension dynamics. The vehicle does not move vertically relative to the ground.
Connection H is the mechanical translational conserving port which is associated with the horizontal motion of the vehicle body. The traction motion developed by the tires should be connected to this port.
Connections V, NF and NR are physical signal output ports that represents vehicle velocity and front and rear normal wheel forces. These wheel forces are considered positive if acting downward. Connections W and beta are physical signal ports that signify headwind speed and road inclination angle respectively.
Gear Box(Simple):
The block represents an ideal, non-planetary, fixed gear ratio gear box. The gear box is characterized by its only parameter, Gear ratio, which can be positive or negative. Connections S and O are mechanical rotational conserving ports associated with the box input and output shaft, respectively. The gear ratio is determined as the ratio of the input shaft angular velocity to that of the output shaft.
The block generates torque in positive direction if a positive torque is applied to the input shaft and the ratio is assigned a positive value.
After the three hole system will connect to the subsystem of the network.Shown in below figure
DC Motor :
In a DC motor, an armature rotates inside a magnetic field. The basic working principle of a DC motor is based on the fact that whenever a current carrying conductor is placed inside a magnetic field, there will be mechanical force experienced by that conductor.
All kinds of DC motors work under this principle. Hence for constructing a DC motor, it is essential to establish a magnetic field. The magnetic field is established by using a magnet. You can use different types of magnets – it may be an electromagnet or it can be a permanent magnet.
The DC Motor block represents the electrical and torque characteristics of a DC motor using the following equivalent circuit model:
You specify the equivalent circuit parameters for this model when you set the Model parameterization parameter to By equivalent circuit parameters. The resistor R corresponds to the resistance you specify in the Armature resistance parameter. The inductor L corresponds to the inductance you specify in the Armature inductance parameter.
You can specify how to generate the magnetic field of the DC motor by setting the Field type parameter to the desired option. The permanent magnets in the motor induce the following back emf vb in the armature:
vb=kvω
where kv is the Back-emf constant and ω is the angular velocity. The motor produces the following torque, which is proportional to the motor current i:
TE=kti
where kt is the Torque constant. The DC Motor block assumes that there are no electromagnetic losses. This means that mechanical power is equal to the electrical power dissipated by the back emf in the armature. Equating these two terms gives:
TEω=vbiktiω=kvωikv=kt
As a result, you specify either kv or kt in the block parameters.
If the magnetic field is generated from the current flowing through the windings, the Back-emf constant depends on the field current If:
kv=LafIf
where Laf is the Field-armature mutual inductance.
The torque-speed characteristic for the DC Motor block is related to the parameters in the preceding figure. When you set the Model parameterization parameter to By stall torque & no-load speed or By rated power, rated speed & no-load speed, the block solves for the equivalent circuit parameters as follows:
-
For the steady-state torque-speed relationship, L has no effect.
-
Sum the voltages around the loop and rearrange for i:
i=V−vbR=V−kvωR
-
Substitute this value of i into the equation for torque:
TE=ktR(V−kvω)
When you set the Model parameterization parameter to
By stall torque & no-load speed, the block uses the preceding equation to determine values for R and kt (and equivalently kv).When you set the Model parameterization parameter to
By rated power, rated speed & no-load speed, the block uses the rated speed and power to calculate the rated torque. The block uses the rated torque and no-load speed values in the preceding equation to determine values for R and kt.
The block models motor inertia J and damping λ for all values of the Model parameterization parameter. The resulting torque across the block is:
T=ktR(V−kvω)−J˙ω−λω
This block represents the electrical and torque characteristics of a DC motor.
The block assumes that no electromagnetic energy is lost, and hence the back-emf and torque constants have the same numerical value when in SI units. Motor parameters can either be specified directly, or derived from no-load speed and stall torque. If no information is available on armature inductance, this parameter can be set to some small non-zero value.
When a positive current flows from the electrical + to - ports, a positive torque acts from the mechanical C to R ports. Motor torque direction can be changed by altering the sign of the back-emf or torque constants.
Battery :
An electric vehicle battery (EVB, also known as a traction battery) is a rechargeable battery used to power the electric motors of a battery electric vehicle (BEV) or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). Typically lithium-ion batteries, they are specifically designed for high electric charge (or energy) capacity.
Electric vehicle batteries differ from starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) batteries as they are designed to give power over sustained periods of time and are deep-cycle batteries. Batteries for electric vehicles are characterized by their relatively high power-to-weight ratio, specific energy and energy density; smaller, lighter batteries are desirable because they reduce the weight of the vehicle and therefore improve its performance. Compared to liquid fuels, most current battery technologies have much lower specific energy, and this often impacts the maximum all-electric range of the vehicles.
The most common battery type in modern electric vehicles are lithium-ion and lithium polymer, because of their high energy density compared to their weight. Other types of rechargeable batteries used in electric vehicles include lead–acid ("flooded", deep-cycle, and valve regulated lead acid), nickel-cadmium, nickel–metal hydride, and, less commonly, zinc–air, and sodium nickel chloride ("zebra") batteries.[1] The amount of electricity (i.e. electric charge) stored in batteries is measured in ampere hours or in coulombs, with the total energy often measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh).
Since the late 1990s, advances in lithium-ion battery technology have been driven by demands from portable electronics, laptop computers, mobile phones, and power tools. The BEV and HEV marketplace has reaped the benefits of these advances both in performance and energy density. Unlike earlier battery chemistries, notably nickel-cadmium, lithium-ion batteries can be discharged and recharged daily and at any state of charge.
The battery pack makes up a significant cost of a BEV or a HEV. As of December 2019, the cost of electric vehicle batteries has fallen 87% since 2010 on a per kilowatt-hour basis. As of 2018, vehicles with over 250 mi (400 km) of all-electric range, such as the Tesla Model S, have been commercialized and are now available in numerous vehicle segments.
In terms of operating costs, the price of electricity to run a BEV is a small fraction of the cost of fuel for equivalent internal combustion engines, reflecting higher energy efficiency.
For electric vehnicle given parameters shown below figure
Electrical Refernces :
The Electrical Reference block represents an electrical ground. Electrical conserving ports of all the blocks that are directly connected to ground must be connected to an Electrical Reference block. A model with electrical elements must contain at least one Electrical Reference block.
Mechanical rotational reference :
The Mechanical Rotational Reference block represents a reference point, or frame, for all mechanical rotational ports. All rotational ports that are rigidly clamped to the frame (ground) must be connected to a Mechanical Rotational Reference block.
H-Bridge :
This block represents an H-bridge motor drive. The block can be driven by the Controlled PWM Voltage block in PWM or Averaged mode. In PWM mode, the motor is powered if the PWM port voltage is above the Enable threshold voltage. In Averaged mode, the PWM port voltage divided by the PWM signal amplitude parameter defines the ratio of the on-time to the PWM period. Using this ratio and assumptions about the load, the block applies an average voltage to the load that achieves the correct average load current. The Simulation mode parameter value must be the same for the Controlled PWM Voltage and H-Bridge blocks.
If the REV port voltage is greater than the Reverse threshold voltage, then the output voltage polarity is reversed. If the BRK port voltage is greater than the Braking threshold voltage, then the output terminals are short circuited via one bridge arm in series with the parallel combination of a second bridge arm and a freewheeling diode. Voltages at ports PWM, REV and BRK are defined relative to the REF port.
The H-Bridge block represents an H-bridge motor driver. The block has the following two Simulation mode options:
-
PWM — The H-Bridge block output is a controlled voltage that depends on the input signal at the PWM port. If the input signal has a value greater than the Enable threshold voltage parameter value, the H-Bridge block output is on and has a value equal to the value of the Output voltage amplitude parameter. If it has a value less than the Enable threshold voltage parameter value, the block maintains the load circuit using one of the following three Freewheeling mode options:
-
Via one semiconductor switch and one freewheeling diode -
Via two freewheeling diodes -
Via two semiconductor switches and one freewheeling diode
The first and third options are sometimes referred to as synchronous operation.
The signal at the REV port determines the polarity of the output. If the value of the signal at the REV port is less than the value of the Reverse threshold voltage parameter, the output has positive polarity; otherwise, it has negative polarity.
-
-
Averaged — This mode has two Load current characteristics options:
-
smoothed
-
unsmoothed and discontinous
The smoothed option assumes that the current is practically continuous due to load inductance. In this case, the H-Bridge block output is:
VOVPWMAPWM−IOUTRON
where:
-
VO is the value of the Output voltage amplitude parameter.
-
VPWM is the value of the voltage at the PWM port.
-
APWM is the value of the PWM signal amplitude parameter.
-
IOUT is the value of the output current.
-
RON is the Bridge on resistance parameter.
The current will be smooth if the PWM frequency is large enough. Synchronous operation where freewheeling is via a bridge arm back to the supply also helps smooth the current. For cases where the current is not smooth, or possibly discontinuous (that is, it goes to zero between PWM cycles), use the unsmoothed and discontinous option. For this option, you must also provide values for the Total load series resistance, Total load series inductance, and PWM frequency. During simulation, the block uses these values to calculate a more accurate value for H-bridge output voltage that achieves the same average current as would be present if simulating in PWM mode.
-
Set the Simulation mode parameter to Averaged to speed up simulations when driving the H-Bridge block with a Controlled PWM Voltage block. You must also set the Simulation mode parameter of the Controlled PWM Voltage block to Averaged mode. This applies the average of the demanded PWM voltage to the motor. The accuracy of the Averaged mode simulation results relies on the validity of your assumption about the load current. If you specify that the current is Unsmoothed or discontinuous, then the accuracy also depends on the values you provide for load resistance and inductance being representative. This mode also makes some simplifying assumptions about the underlying equations for the case when current is discontinuous. For typical motor and bridge parameters, accuracy should be within a few percent. To verify Averaged mode accuracy, run the simulation using the PWM mode and compare the results to those obtained from using the Averaged mode.
Braking mode is invoked when the voltage presented at the BRK port is larger than the Braking threshold voltage. Regardless of whether in PWM or Averaged mode, when in braking mode the H-bridge is modeled by a series combination of two resistances R1 and R2 where:
-
R1 is the resistance of a single bridge arm, that is, half the value of the Total bridge on resistance parameter.
-
R2 is the resistance of a single bridge arm in parallel with a diode resistance, that is, R1 · Rd / ( R1 + Rd ), where Rd is the diode resistance.
Ports :
| Port Name | Description |
| PWM | Input port for PWM voltage |
| REF | Input port for reference PWM voltage |
| REV | Input port for reverse signal |
| BRK | Input port for brake signal |
Controlled PWM Voltage :
The Controlled PWM Voltage block represents a pulse-width modulated (PWM) voltage source. The block has two modeling variants, accessible by right-clicking the block in your block diagram and then selecting the appropriate option from the context menu, under Simscape > Block choices:
-
Electrical input ports — The block calculates the duty cycle based on the reference voltage across its ref+ and ref- ports. This modeling variant is the default.
-
PS input — Specify the duty cycle value directly by using an input physical signal port.
For the Electrical input ports variant of the block, the demanded duty cycle is
100∗Vref−VminVmax−Vmin percent
where:
-
Vref is the reference voltage across the ref+ and ref- ports.
-
Vmin is the minimum reference voltage.
-
Vmax is the maximum reference voltage.
The value of the Output voltage amplitude parameter determines amplitude of the output voltage.
At time zero, the pulse is initialized as high, unless the Pulse delay time parameter is greater than zero, or the demanded duty cycle is zero.
You can use parameters Pulse delay time and Pulse width offset to add a small turn-on delay and a small turn-off advance. This can be useful when fine-tuning switching times so as to minimize switching losses.
In PWM mode, the block has two options for the type of switching event when moving between output high and output low states:
-
Asynchronous – Best for variable-step solvers— Asynchronous events are better suited to variable step solvers, because they require fewer simulation steps for the same level of accuracy. In asynchronous mode the PWM switching events generate zero crossings, and therefore switching times are always determined accurately, regardless of the simulation maximum step size. -
Discrete—time – Best for fixed-step solvers— Discrete-time events are better suited to fixed-step operation, because then the switching events are always synchronized with the simulation step. Using an asynchronous implementation with fixed-step solvers may sometimes result in events being up to one simulation step late. For more information, see Simulating with Fixed Time Step — Local and Global Fixed-Step Solvers.
If you use a fixed-step or local solver and the discrete-time switching event type, the following restrictions apply to the Sample time parameter value:
-
The sample time must be a multiple of the simulation step size.
-
The sample time must be small compared to the PWM period, to ensure sufficient resolution.
Current Sensor:
The Current Sensor block represents an ideal current sensor, that is, a device that converts current measured in any electrical branch into a physical signal proportional to the current.
Connections + and – are electrical conserving ports through which the sensor is inserted into the circuit. Connection I is a physical signal port that outputs the measurement result.
Controlled Current Source :
The block represents an ideal current source that is powerful enough to maintain the specified current through it regardless of the voltage across it. The output current is I = Is, where Is is the numerical value presented at the physical signal port.
Controlled voltage source :
The Controlled Voltage Source block represents an ideal voltage source that is powerful enough to maintain the specified voltage at its output regardless of the current flowing through the source.
The output voltage is V = Vs, where Vs is the numerical value presented at the physical signal port.
Multiport Switch :
Choose between multiple block inputs
Library
Simulink Signal Routing and Fixed-Point Blockset Select
The Multi-Port Switch block chooses between a number of inputs. The first (top) input is called the control input, while the rest of the inputs are called data inputs. The value of the control input determines which data input is passed through to the output port.
If the control input is an integer value, then the specified data input is passed through to the output. For example, suppose the Use zero-based indexing parameter is not selected. If the control input is 1, then the first data input is passed through to the output. If the control input is 2, then the second data input is passed through to the output, and so on. If the control input is not an integer value, the block first truncates the value to an integer by rounding to floor. If the truncated control input is less than 1 or greater than the number of input ports, an out-of-bounds error is returned.
You specify the number of data inputs with the Number of input ports parameter. The data inputs can be scalar or vector. The block output is determined by these rules:
- If you specify only one data input and that input is a vector, the block behaves as an "index selector," and not as a multi-port switch. The block output is the vector element that corresponds to the value of the control input.
- If you specify more than one data input, the block behaves like a multi-port switch. The block output is the data input that corresponds to the value of the control input. If at least one of the data inputs is a vector, the block output is a vector. Any scalar inputs are expanded to vectors.
- If the inputs are scalar, the output is a scalar.
When the Show additional parameters check box is selected, some of the parameters that become visible are common to many blocks. For a detailed description of these parameters, refer to Block Parameters in the Fixed-Point Blockset documentation.
Driving cycle Sources :
A driving cycle is a series of data points representing the speed of a vehicle versus time.
Driving cycles are produced by different countries and organizations to assess the performance of vehicles in various ways, as for instance fuel consumption, electric vehicle autonomy and polluting emissions.
Fuel consumption and emission tests are performed on chassis dynamometers. Tailpipe emissions are collected and measured to indicate the performance of the vehicle.
Another use for driving cycles is in vehicle simulations. More specifically, they are used in propulsion system simulations to predict performance of internal combustion engines, transmissions, electric drive systems, batteries, fuel cell systems, and similar components.
Some driving cycles are derived theoretically, as it is preferred in the European Union, whereas others are direct measurements of a driving pattern deemed representative.
There are two types of driving cycles:
- Transient driving cycles involve many changes, representing the constant speed changes typical of on-road driving.
- Modal driving cycles involve protracted periods at constant speeds.
The American FTP-75, and the unofficial European Hyzem driving cycles are transient, whereas the Japanese 10-15 Mode and JC08 cycles are modal cycles.
Some highly stylized modal driving cycles such as obsolete European NEDC were designed to fit a particular requirement but bear little relation to real world driving patterns.On the contrary, the current WLTP is striving to mimic real word driving behavior. The most common driving cycles are probably the WLTC, NEDC, SORDS and the FTP-75, the later corresponding to urban driving conditions solely.
DC-DC Converter :
DC-to-DC converters are devices that temporarily store electrical energy for the purpose of converting direct current (DC) from one voltage level to another. In automotive applications, they are an essential intermediary between systems of different voltage levels throughout the vehicle.
The DC-to-DC converters convert one level of DC voltage to another level. The operating voltage of different electronic devices such as ICs, MOSFET can vary over a wide range, making it necessary to provide a voltage for each device. A Buck Converter outputs a lower voltage than the original voltage, while a Boost Converter supplies a higher voltage.
With the application of DC-to-DC Converters, the circuit’s efficiency, ripple, and load-transient response can be changed. Optimal external parts and components are generally dependent on operating conditions such as input and output specifications. So, while designing the products, the standard circuits must be varied or changed according to and as per the need to their individual specification requirements. Designing the circuit that satisfies the specification and all the requirements needs a great deal of expertise and experience in that field.
LONGITUDINAL DRIVER:
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