Project-1: Powertrain for aircraft in runways

Type	MTOW [kg]	MLW [tons]
Antonov An-225	640,000	591.7
Scaled Composites Model 351 Stratolaunch	589,670
Airbus A380-800[1][2]	575,000	394
Boeing 747-8F	447,700	346.091
Boeing 747-8	443,613	306.175
Boeing 747-400ER	412,770	295.742
Antonov An-124-100M	405,060	330
Boeing 747-400	396,900	295.742
Lockheed C-5 Galaxy[3][4][5]	381,000	288.417
Boeing 747-200[6]	377,840	285.700
Boeing 747-300[6]	377,840	260.320
Airbus A340-500[7]	371,950	240
Airbus A340-600[7]	367,400	256
Boeing 777F	347,800	260.816
Boeing 777-300ER	351,800	251.29
Boeing 777-200LR	347,450	223.168
Boeing 747-100[6]	340,200	265.300
Airbus A350-1000	308,000	233.5
Boeing 777-300	299,370	237.683
Boeing 777-200ER	297,550	213.00
Airbus A340-300[7][8]	276,700	190
McDonnell Douglas MD-11	273,300	185
Airbus A350-900	270,000	175
Ilyushin Il-96M	270,000	195.04
McDonnell Douglas DC-10	256,280	183
Boeing 787-9[9]	254,000	192.777
Boeing 787-10[9]	254,000	201.849
Airbus A340-200[7][10]	253,500	181
Ilyushin IL-96-300	250,000	175
Airbus A330-300[11][12]	242,000	185
Airbus A330-200[11][12]	242,000	180
Lockheed L-1011-500	231,300	166.92
Boeing 787-8[9]	228,000	172.365
Lockheed L-1011-200	211,400
Ilyushin IL-86	208,000	175
Boeing 767-400ER	204,000	158.758
Airbus A300-600R[13]	192,000	140
Boeing 767-300ER	187,000	136.08
Concorde	185,000	111.1
Airbus A300-600[13]	163,000	138
Boeing 767-300	159,000	136.078
Airbus A310-300[13]	157,000	124
Vickers VC10	152,000	151.9
Boeing 707-320B[14]	151,000	97.5
Boeing 707-320C[14]	151,000	112.1
Douglas DC-8-61	147,000
Airbus A310-200[13]	142,000	123
Airbus A400M	141,000	122
Douglas DC-8-32	140,000
Douglas DC-8-51	125,000
Boeing 757-300	124,000	101.6
Boeing 707-120B[14]	117,000	86.3
Boeing 757-200	116,000	89.9
Boeing 720B[15]	106,000	79.5
Boeing 720[15]	104,000	79.5
Tupolev Tu-154M	104,000	80
Tupolev Tu-204SM	104,000	87.5
Convair 880	87,500
Boeing 737-900	85,000	66.36
Boeing 737-900ER	85,000	71.35
Boeing 727-200 Advanced[16]	84,000	70.1
Airbus A321-100[17]	83,000	77.8
Boeing 737-800	79,000	65.32
Boeing 727-200[16]	78,000	68.1
McDonnell-Douglas MD-83	73,000	63.28
Boeing 727-100[16]	72,500	62.4
Boeing 727-100C[16]	72,500	62.4
McDonnell-Douglas MD-90-30	71,000	64.41
de Havilland Comet 4	70,700
Boeing 737-700	70,000	58.06
Airbus A320-100[17]	68,000	66
Boeing 737-400	68,000	54.9
de Havilland Comet 3	68,000
Boeing 377	67,000
Boeing 737-600	66,000	54.66
Airbus A220-300	65,000	57.61
Hawker Siddeley Trident 2E	65,000
Airbus A319[17]	64,000	62.5
Boeing 737-300	63,000	51.7
Boeing 737-500	60,000	49.9
Airbus A220-100	59,000	50.80
Airbus A318[17]	59,000	57.5
Boeing 717-200HGW	55,000	47.174
Douglas DC-7	55,000
de Havilland Comet 2	54,000
Boeing 717-200BGW	50,000	46.265
de Havilland Comet 1	50,000
Douglas DC-6A	48,600
Douglas DC-6B	48,500
Embraer 190[18]	48,000	43
Caravelle III	46,000
Fokker 100	46,000	39.95
Douglas DC-6	44,000
Avro RJ-85	42,000	36.74
Handley Page Hermes	39,000
Embraer 175[19]	37,500	32.8
Bombardier CRJ900[20]	36,500	33.345
Embraer 170[21]	36,000	32.8
Bombardier CRJ700	33,000	30.39
Douglas DC-4	33,000
Vickers Viscount 800	30,400
Bombardier Q400	28,000	28.01
Bombardier CRJ200	23,000	21.319
ATR 72-600	22,800	22.35
Saab 2000	22,800	21.5
Embraer ERJ 145	22,000	19.3
ATR 42-500	18,600	18.3
Saab 340	13,150	12.930
Embraer 120 Brasilia	11,500	11.25
BAe Jetstream 41	10,890	10.570
Learjet 75[22]	9,752	8.709
Pilatus PC-24[23]	8,300	7.665
Embraer Phenom 300[24]	8,150	7.65
Beechcraft 1900D	7,765	7.605
Cessna Citation CJ4[25]	7,761	7.103
de Havilland Hercules	7,000
Embraer Phenom 100	4,800	4.43

Maximum takeoff weight (MTOW)

The maximum takeoff weight (also known as the maximum brake-release weight) is the maximum weight authorized at brake release for takeoff, or at the start of the takeoff roll.

Maximum landing weight (MLW)

The maximum weight authorized for the normal landing of an aircraft.The MLW must not exceed the MTOW.

The operation landing weight may be limited to a weight lower than the Maximum Landing Weight by the most restrictive of the following requirements:

• Aircraft performance requirements for a given altitude and temperature: landing field length requirements, approach and landing climb requirements

• Noise requirements

2..................

Airspeed

The important quantity in lift generation is the relative velocity between the object and the air, called airspeed. Airspeed cannot be directly measured from a ground position but must be computed from the ground speed and the wind speed. Airspeed is the vector diffrence between the ground speed and the wind speed.

Airspeed = Ground Speed - Wind Speed

On a perfectly still day, the airspeed is equal to the ground speed. But if the wind is blowing in the same direction that the aircraft is moving, the airspeed will be less than the ground speed.

Ground Speed

For a reference point picked on the ground, the aircraft moves relative to the reference point at the ground speed. Ground speed is also a vector quantity so a comparison of the ground speed to the wind speed must be done according to rules for vector comparison

Wind Speed

For a reference point picked on the ground, the air moves relative to the reference point at the wind speed. Notice that the wind speed is a vector quantity and has both a magnitude and a direction. Direction is important. A 20 mph wind from the west is different from a 20 mph wind from the east. The wind has components in all three primary directions (north-south, east-west, and up-down). In this figure, we are considering only velocities along the aircraft's flight path. A positive velocity is defined to be in the direction of the aircraft's motion. We are neglecting cross wind which occurs perpendicular to the flight path but parallel to the ground, and updrafts and downdrafts, which occur perpendicular to the ground.

For Example- If the Airspeed of an aircraft is 600km/h, whereas the wind speed is 200km/h in the same direction as airspeed. Then the ground speed will be (600+200)= 800km/h, which is explained in Fig-2. But if the wind speed of 100km/h is in the opposite direction of airspeed, then the ground speed will be (600-200)= 400km/h,

3.................................

The risks which may arise from engine ground running relate to the potential for loss of control of the aircraft by those persons occupying the pilot seats in the flight deck. Unwanted consequences from such static running are mainly related to those arising from the unintended movement of the aircraft during engine running - effectively a loss of control - especially during high power engine running. Damage can occur to the aircraft itself, other aircraft nearby or to airside structures. In addition, there is a risk of injury to ground support personnel who may be in relatively close proximity to the aircraft.

When modern jet engines are operated at rated thrust levels, the exhaust wake can exceed 375 mi/h (325 kn or 603 km/h) immediately aft of the engine exhaust nozzle. This exhaust flow field extends aft in a rapidly expanding cone, with portions of the flow field contacting and extending aft along the pavement surface (fig. 1). Exhaust velocity components are attenuated with increasing distance from the engine exhaust nozzle. However, an airflow of 300 mi/h (260 kn or 483 km/h) can still be present at the empennage, and significant people and equipment hazards will persist hundreds of feet beyond this area. At full power, the exhaust wake speed can typically be 150 mi/h (130 kn or 240 km/h) at 200 ft (61 m) beyond the airplane and 50 to 100 mi/h (43 to 88 kn or 80 to 161 km/h) well beyond this point.

The extensive noise that arises from the engine power also dangerous for humans and other living things around the vicinity.

Hence for the above reasons, it is not recommended to use engine power to move on the ground.

4.......................

In aviation, pushback is an airport procedure during which an aircraft's pushed backward away from an airport gate by an external power. Pushbacks are carried out by special, low-profile vehicles called pushback tractors or tugs.

Although many aircraft are capable of moving themselves backward on the ground using reverse thrust (a procedure referred to as a powerback), the resulting jet blast or propwash might cause damage to the terminal building or equipment. Engines close to the ground may also blow sand and debris forward and then suck them into the engine, causing damage to the engine. A pushback is therefore the preferred method to move the aircraft away from the gate.

As the pilot can't see what is behind the aircraft, steering is done by pushback tractor driver and depending on the aircraft type and airline procedure, a bypass pin may be temporarily installed into the nose gear to disconnect it from the aircraft's normal steering mechanism. Once the towing is completed, the towbar is disconnected and the aircraft can taxiing forward under its own power.

5......................

Take-Off Power:

For light aircraft, usually, full power is used during takeoff. Large transport category (airliner) aircraft may use a reduced power for takeoff, where less than full power is applied in order to prolong engine life, reduce maintenance costs and reduce noise emissions. In some emergency cases, the power used can then be increased to increase the aircraft's performance. Before takeoff, the engines, particularly piston engines, are routinely run up at high power to check for engine-related problems. The aircraft is permitted to accelerate to rotation speed (often referred to as V_r). The term rotation is used because the aircraft pivots around the axis of its main landing gear while still on the ground, usually because of gentle manipulation of the flight controls to make or facilitate this change in aircraft attitude (once proper air displacement occurs under/over the wings, an aircraft will lift off on its own; controls are to ease that in).

The nose is raised to a nominal 5°–15° nose-up pitch attitude to increase lift from the wings and effect liftoff. For most aircraft, attempting a takeoff without a pitch-up would require cruise speeds while still on the runway.

(ii)Tyre Design>> An aircraft tire is designed to withstand extremely heavy loads for short duration of time. The number of tires required for aircraft increases with the weight of the aircraft, as the weight of the airplane needs to be distributed more evenly. For example -A Boeing 737NG & 737MAX uses 6 wheels, Boeing 787 uses 10 wheels, Boeing 777 uses 14 wheels and Airbus A380 uses 22 wheels.

Aircraft tires also include fusible plugs (which are assembled on the inside of the wheels), designed to melt at a certain temperature. Tires often overheat if maximum braking is applied during an aborted takeoff or an emergency landing. The fuses provide a safer failure mode that prevents tire explosions by deflating in a controlled manner, thus minimizing damage to aircraft and objects in the surrounding environment.

Designing aircraft tires is a very intense undertaking. Carcass plies are used to form the tire. They are sometimes called casing plies. An aircraft tyre is constructed for the purpose it serves.

(i)They support the weight of an aircraft while it is on the ground.

(ii)It also provides the necessary traction for braking and stopping of an airplane.

(iii)Tyre also helps to absorb the shock of landing and provides cushioning the roughness of takeoff, roll-out, and taxi operations.

(iii)Rolling Resistance>>
In addition to the familiar forces like thrust, weight, lift, and drag there is a rolling resistance force FR caused by friction between tire and the ground. When aircraft is towing or taxing to pushed it into runway or when a take-off roll is happening, the rolling resistance force act against the traction force of the aircraft. This rolling resistance force depends on many factors like surface of the road, the roughness of the road, dry or wet condition of the road, tire pressure, tyre material tyre temperature, thread pattern of the tire etc, which determines the rolling resistance force.

Rolling resistance force = FR in Newton Rolling resistance co-efficient = urr (It varies for different types of the environment)

Tyre Pressure:

Aircraft tires are usually inflated with nitrogen to minimize expansion and contraction from extreme changes in ambient temperature and pressure experienced during flight. Dry nitrogen expands at the same rate as other dry atmospheric gases (normal air is about 80% nitrogen), but common compressed air sources may contain moisture, which increases the expansion rate with temperature.

Tests of airliner aircraft tires have shown that they are able to sustain pressures of a maximum 800 psi (55 bar; 5,500 kPa) before bursting. During the tests the tires have to be filled with water, to prevent the test room being blown apart by the energy that would be released by a gas when the tire bursts.

Brakes Forces When Landing:

In general, when the wheels touch the ground, a set of spoilers raise up quickly, which kills the lift provided by the wings. (There are two sets seen in the image below: ground spoilers that only deploy on landing, and spoilers that are used in flight as speed brakes as well as on landing.) While the spoilers provide some drag, their primary purpose is to stop the plane from actually flying, putting all of the weight on the landing gear and in turn making the brakes that much more effective.

Aircraft have highly engineered, multi-disc brakes made of a carbon-steel material. Manufacturers include Honeywell and Goodrich, part of Collins Aerospace. In general, the brakes are composed of discs that rotate with the wheel and separate discs that are fixed. When pressure is applied—and below you see pressure applied from the right fixed disc on all of the discs—the entire assembly compresses to create the braking action. Carbon brakes are standard today; they cool faster than steel brakes (their predecessor) and can weigh up to 700 pounds less. That represents a significant weight saving for airlines.

Auto Brakes:

Wheel brakes are usually selected to engage automatically after landing. These are called “auto brakes”.that all airliners have several levels of auto brake “severity”. The crew will decide which is the most appropriate to use for every landing depending upon factors like the length of the runway, if it is wet or dry, or if the pilots want to exit the runway at a particular point. “For a short wet runway, you might select autobrake 3, or MED on the Airbus. For a long dry runway you might select autobrake 1 or LOW on the Airbus".

6...................

Rolling resistance force:- As we have discussed in part-A 5c. It is the force resisting the motion when a body (such as a ball, tire, or wheel) rolls on a surface. Its governing equation is given as

now the model made to find power using simulink

b----modle

7...........................................

Electric Vehicles, consist of a battery, connected to an electric motor (either AC or DC) via an inverter and a motor controller. As automotive batteries generally operate on DC current, while the gird operates AC, a converter is needed to transfer power to the battery.One of the key advantages of an EV is its much higher levels of energy efficiency. Typically an EV will achieve a system efficiency of 80% from battery to wheel (roughly 60% from grid to wheel), while with a conventional IC engine it’s more like 15-25%. This is largely due to the fact that an IC engine is a “heat engine”

Based on the calculations done in 6

Force required to push/pull the aircraft =29.824KN

Power required =82.84 kw

Let us assume,

The Radius of the Tyre for the Tug = 25inches =0.635m

Gear ratio = 8

Transmission Effeciency (ηt) =87%

Motor Efficiency (ηm)=95%

then,

Torque required for the wheels (Tw)=Total Force *Radius in meters

=29.824*0.635

= 18.938KNm

Motor Torque= Wheel torque/(Gear ratio*ηt)

= 18.938 / (8*0.87)

= 2.720KNm

For ηm =95%, The required motor Torque (Tm)= 2.720/0.95 =2.863 kNm

Similarly, The total power required by the motor considering all the efficiencies(Pt) = 82.84/(0.87*0.95)=68.467Kw

Let us assume the towing operation was done for a 15 minutes (0.25Hrs) duration.

Then, Total Energy consumed = 68.467*0.25 = 17.11 KWh

this is the graph representing the wave form of voltage ,soc and current a bus block which is connected to the battery which provided supply to the modle

this graph represent all the wave form of current, duty cycle,speed ,armature voltage these are all connected to dc7 block and these are the results from the scope