Project 2

1) Project (a)

Prostate Cancer

The prostate gland is located just below the bladder in men and surrounds the top portion of the tube that drains urine from the bladder (urethra).It is about the size of a chestnut and somewhat conical in shape and consist of a base,apex,an anterior,a posterior and two lateral surfaces.Its primary function is to produce the fluid that nurishes and transports sperm(seminal fluid).

Prostate cancer is one of the commonest condition that retards prostate function and occurs in the prostate.This type of cancer is one of the most common type of cancer and most prostate cancer grows slowly and are confined to the prostate gland where they may not cause serous harm.However, some type of prostate cancer grows slowly and may need minimal or even no treatment and other types are aggressive and can spread quickly.

Prostate cancer may cause no signs or symptom at early stage and the once that is more advanced may present with difficulties in urination,decreased force in the stream of urine,blood in the urine,bone pain,loosing weight without trying and erectile dysfunction some times.

The cause of the prostate cancer is unknown but however,its thought to be linked to some factors like:-

• Old age where the risk of men increases as they grow older after 50 years
• Race with black people having the higher risk than others.
• Family history poses a high risk of acquiring cancer.
• Obesity where people who are obese may have a higher risk compared to other people.

Different people have differnt symptoms of prostate cancer and some men do not show any symptoms at all.Possible symptoms of prostate cancer includes:-Difficulties in starting urination,weak or interrupted flow of urine,urinating often especially at night,dysuria,blood in the urine or semenand lower backache.

The investigations for prostate cancer includes the following:-

• Blood for Prsotate specific Antigen(PSA) also known as gamma-seminoprotein which is a glycoprotein enzyme encoded in human by the KLK3 gene.The level of PSA is higher in men who have prostate cancer and this may also be higher in men with prostate disorders like benign prostate hyperplesia.
• Biopsy of prostate tissues for histology to rule out any abnormal growth of prostate cells with the help of transrectal ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging in guiding the procedure.

Different types of treatment are available for prostate cancer but however,this may be determined by the stage of an individual cancer.

Surgically,prostectomy can be done which is a procedure in which the prostate gland is removed.Radical prostectomy removes the prostate as well as the surrounding tissues.In a retropubic prostectomy,the patient is placed on a operating room table in a supine position in mild trendelenburg.In the suprapubic approach,the patient is placed in a supine position on the operation table with the umblicus over the break of the table.

Radiotheraphy can also be done in combination with other intervention using a high energy rays to kill the cancer cells.This can be external radiotheraphy where a machine outside the body directs radiations to the cancer cells. internal radiotheraphy(brachytheraphy) where radioactive seeds or pellets are surgically placed into or near the cancer to destroy the cancer cells.

Finally,chemotheraphy can also be used where a special anti cancer drugs can be used to destroy cancer cells.

Colon cancer

The colon cancer is the cancer that begins in the large intestine and the colon is the final part of the gastrointestenial tract.

The colon extends from the cecum up to the right side of the abdomen accross to the left side and down to the left side and then loops or sigmoid to join the rectum.The entire colon is about 5ft long with the mentioned five major segments where the rectum is the last segment before the anus.The purpose of the colon is to provide lubrications to waste products,absorb remaining fluids and salts and storage of waste products untill they are ready to be passed out.

The colon cancer typically affects old adults,though it can happen at any age.It usually begins as a noncancerous clumps of cells called polyps that forms from inside the colon and when not attended to the polyps can progress into a cancer.The colon cancer sometimes are called colorectal cancer which is a term that combines the colon and the rectum cancer which begins from the rectum.In general,colon cancer begins when healthy cells in the colon develop changes in their DNA but however, its belived to be linked to some factors line:-

• Old age especially at 50 yeasr and above
• African American race compared to the whites.
• Inflammatory intestenial conditions.
• Family history of coleoretal cancer.
• Inherited syndromes that increase colon cancer risk and many others.

The cancer of the colon may presents in different ways as below:-

• A persistent change in the bowel habit characterised by diarrhoea,constipations or a change in the stool consistency.
• Rectal bleeding or blood in the stool.
• Pesrsistent abdominal discomfort such as cramps ,gas or pain.
• A feeling that there is incomplete emptying of the bowel.
• Weakness or fatigue.
• Un explained weight loss.

The diagnosis of colon cancer can be done by the use of following methods:-

Colonoscopy:-This refers to the examination of the entire large bowel using a colonoscope which is longer than the sigmoidoscope.The procedure requires the bowel to be empty and the patient must be given a sedative that relaxes the bowel and it is usually painless.The device has a camera which relays image to the monitor which allows for analysis of the colon part.

Another investigation is the Computerised Tomography(CT) colonography:-which invilves use of a CT scan to produce 3 dimensional images of the large bowel and rectum.

The treatment of colon cancer depends on the stage of the cancer however,the earlier the stage,the better the treatment out come.

Surgery for early stage colon cancer:-This occurs when the cancer is still small and the following surgical procedures can be done;-Removing polyps during a colonoscopy ,endoscopic mucosal resection,and minimally invasive surgery(Laparascopic surgery).If the cancer has grown much through the colon,partial colectomy may be done where some part of the colon is removed as the patien lie in a supine position on a surgical table.

Chemotheraphy may also be used and this is usually given after surgery if the cancer is larger or has spread to surrounding tissues like lymph nodes.In this case chemotheraphy may kill all the cancer cells that remains in the body after surgery.

Immunitheraphy may also be used where a drug is used to stimulate an individual immune system to destroy cancer cells and this is usually reserved for advanced colon cancer.

Project (b)

Pneumonia

This is an infection that inflames the air sacs in one or both lungs and this air sacs may be filled with fluids or pus.The air sacs are thin membranous structures connected to the primary or secondary bronchi via the ostia and they comproses most of the volume of the respiratory system.They are poorly vascularised by systemic circulation and do not directly participate in significant gas exchange but acts as a bellow to ventilate the lungs.

Pneumonia are more common in children than adults and common in adults with compromised immunity.It is commonly caused by the viruses like influenza,respiratory syncytial virus and SARS-CoV2,Bacteria and fungi can also cause pneumonia.

The symptoms of pneumonia can develop suddenly over 24 to 48 hours or they may come more slowley over several days which may includes:-

• Dry or productive cough
• Difficulties in breathing.
• Fever.
• Rapid heart beat.
• Chest pain and many others.

A chest x-ray :-An x-ray exams is used to see how the lung is appearing,heart and blood vessels to help determine the presence of pneumonia.When intepreting the x-ray,the radiologist will look for white spots in the lungs that identify an infection.This examination may also help to determine if one has complications related to pneumonia such as abscess or pleural effusions.

Computerised tomography(CT) of the lungs:-A CT scan of the lung may be done to finner details within the lungs and detect the pneumonia that may be more difficult to see on a plane x-ray .This scan also shows the air way in great details and can help to determine if pneumonia may be related to a problem within the air ways.A CT scan can reveal complications related to pneumonia like abscess,or pleural effusions and enlarge lymph nodes.

Other diagnostic method could be complete blood count that will show increased levels of certain white blood cells level which would help the doctor to make a comprhensive diagnosis.

The treatment of pneumonia depends on the cause as discussed above but however,mild pneumonia can be treated as an outpatent with antibiotics and other remedes.Severe cases requires hospitalization with pharmachological approach and oxygen theraphy under close monitoring of health care personnels.

Myocardial infraction

This is a blockage of blood flow to the heart muscles.In this the heart muscles begins to day because it is not getting enough blood flow and it is usually casued by blockage to the arteries that supplies blood to the heart.

This involves coronary circulations which does blood circulation in the blood vessels of the heart that supplies the heart muscles.The coronary arteries supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscles and cardiac veins drains away blood from the heart which is deoxygenated.

The myocardial infraction occurs following blockage due to buildup of fats,cholesterals,and other substances in the heart .The fatty,cholesteral-deposits are called plaques and the process of build up is called atherosclerosis.Some plaques can rapture and form a clot that blocks blood flow where a lack of blood flow can damage or destroy part of the heart muscles.

The symptoms of myocardial infraction varry according to individuals where some people have mild symptoms while others may be severe but common symptoms includes:-

• Chest pain that may feel like pressure,tightness, and pain.
• pain or discomfort that spreads to the shoulder,arm,back and neck.
• Cold sweat.
• Fatigue
• Shortness of breath and many others.

This can be diagnosed using Electrocardiogram which is the first test that is used to rule out the condition and it records electrical signals as they travel through the heart muscles. In this sticky patches are attached to the chest and sometimes the arm and legs and sometimes the arm during the procedure.Signals are recorded as waves are displayed on a monitor or printed on a paper.An ECG can show the presence of myocardial infraction.

Echocardiogram:-This is done using sound waves of high frequency that creat images of the moving heart.This test can shoe how blood moves through the heart,and heart valves.An echocardiogram can help to identify whether an area of heart has been damaged.

There are also some other diagnostic techniques that can be used like chest x-rays,coronary catheterization and cardiac CT or MRI.

The treatment of myocardial infraction ranges from life style changes to cardiac rehabilitation,to medications,stents and bypass surgery.

Coronary angioplsty is a procedure used to open clogged heart arteries and involve use of tiny baloon catheter that is inserted in a blocked blood vessel to help widen it and improve blood flow to the heart.

Coronary artery bypass is a surgical procedure for coronary artery disease aiming to relieve angina,stall progression of ischemic heart disease and increased life expectancy.Coronary bypass surgery redirects blood around a section of blocked or partially blocked artey in the heart.The procedure involves taking a healthy blood vessels from any part of the body especially the limbs and connecting it the the blocked arteries .With new path ways blood flow to the heart improves.