Project-1: Powertrain for aircraft in runways

SOLUTION 1)

Type	MTOW [kg]	MLW [tons]
Antonov An-225	640,000	591.7
Scaled Composites Model 351 Stratolaunch	589,670
Airbus A380-800[1][2]	575,000	394
Boeing 747-8F	447,700	346.091
Boeing 747-8	443,613	306.175
Boeing 747-400ER	412,770	295.742
Antonov An-124-100M	405,060	330
Boeing 747-400	396,900	295.742
Lockheed C-5 Galaxy[3][4][5]	381,000	288.417
Boeing 747-200[6]	377,840	285.700
Boeing 747-300[6]	377,840	260.320
Airbus A340-500[7]	371,950	240
Airbus A340-600[7]	367,400	256
Boeing 777F	347,800	260.816
Boeing 777-300ER	351,800	251.29
Boeing 777-200LR	347,450	223.168
Boeing 747-100[6]	340,200	265.300
Airbus A350-1000	308,000	233.5
Boeing 777-300	299,370	237.683
Boeing 777-200ER	297,550	213.00
Airbus A340-300[7][8]	276,700	190
McDonnell Douglas MD-11	273,300	185
Airbus A350-900	270,000	175
Ilyushin Il-96M	270,000	195.04
McDonnell Douglas DC-10	256,280	183
Boeing 787-9[9]	254,000	192.777
Boeing 787-10[9]	254,000	201.849
Airbus A340-200[7][10]	253,500	181
Ilyushin IL-96-300	250,000	175
Airbus A330-300[11][12]	242,000	185
Airbus A330-200[11][12]	242,000	180
Lockheed L-1011-500	231,300	166.92
Boeing 787-8[9]	228,000	172.365
Lockheed L-1011-200	211,400
Ilyushin IL-86	208,000	175
Boeing 767-400ER	204,000	158.758
Airbus A300-600R[13]	192,000	140
Boeing 767-300ER	187,000	136.08
Concorde	185,000	111.1
Airbus A300-600[13]	163,000	138
Boeing 767-300	159,000	136.078
Airbus A310-300[13]	157,000	124
Vickers VC10	152,000	151.9
Boeing 707-320B[14]	151,000	97.5
Boeing 707-320C[14]	151,000	112.1
Douglas DC-8-61	147,000
Airbus A310-200[13]	142,000	123
Airbus A400M	141,000	122
Douglas DC-8-32	140,000
Douglas DC-8-51	125,000
Boeing 757-300	124,000	101.6
Boeing 707-120B[14]	117,000	86.3
Boeing 757-200	116,000	89.9
Boeing 720B[15]	106,000	79.5
Boeing 720[15]	104,000	79.5
Tupolev Tu-154M	104,000	80
Tupolev Tu-204SM	104,000	87.5
Convair 880	87,500
Boeing 737-900	85,000	66.36
Boeing 737-900ER	85,000	71.35
Boeing 727-200 Advanced[16]	84,000	70.1
Airbus A321-100[17]	83,000	77.8
Boeing 737-800	79,000	65.32
Boeing 727-200[16]	78,000	68.1
McDonnell-Douglas MD-83	73,000	63.28
Boeing 727-100[16]	72,500	62.4
Boeing 727-100C[16]	72,500	62.4
McDonnell-Douglas MD-90-30	71,000	64.41
de Havilland Comet 4	70,700
Boeing 737-700	70,000	58.06
Airbus A320-100[17]	68,000	66
Boeing 737-400	68,000	54.9
de Havilland Comet 3	68,000
Boeing 377	67,000
Boeing 737-600	66,000	54.66
Airbus A220-300	65,000	57.61
Hawker Siddeley Trident 2E	65,000
Airbus A319[17]	64,000	62.5
Boeing 737-300	63,000	51.7
Boeing 737-500	60,000	49.9
Airbus A220-100	59,000	50.80
Airbus A318[17]	59,000	57.5
Boeing 717-200HGW	55,000	47.174
Douglas DC-7	55,000
de Havilland Comet 2	54,000
Boeing 717-200BGW	50,000	46.265
de Havilland Comet 1	50,000
Douglas DC-6A	48,600
Douglas DC-6B	48,500
Embraer 190[18]	48,000	43
Caravelle III	46,000
Fokker 100	46,000	39.95
Douglas DC-6	44,000
Avro RJ-85	42,000	36.74
Handley Page Hermes	39,000
Embraer 175[19]	37,500	32.8
Bombardier CRJ900[20]	36,500	33.345
Embraer 170[21]	36,000	32.8
Bombardier CRJ700	33,000	30.39
Douglas DC-4	33,000
Vickers Viscount 800	30,400
Bombardier Q400	28,000	28.01
Bombardier CRJ200	23,000	21.319
ATR 72-600	22,800	22.35
Saab 2000	22,800	21.5
Embraer ERJ 145	22,000	19.3
ATR 42-500	18,600	18.3
Saab 340	13,150	12.930
Embraer 120 Brasilia	11,500	11.25
BAe Jetstream 41	10,890	10.570
Learjet 75[22]	9,752	8.709
Pilatus PC-24[23]	8,300	7.665
Embraer Phenom 300[24]	8,150	7.65
Beechcraft 1900D	7,765	7.605
Cessna Citation CJ4[25]	7,761	7.103
de Havilland Hercules	7,000
Embraer Phenom 100	4,800	4.43

solution 2):

. airspeed is equal to the ground speed. But if the wind is blowing in the same direction that the aircraft is moving, the airspeed will be less than the ground speed.

. Airspeed is the vector difference between the ground speed and the wind speed.

. An aircraft's true airspeed tells us how fast it moves relative to the surrounding air, while the ground speed is its horizontal speed relative to the earth's surface.

GROUND SPEED	AIR SPEED
1. Ground speed is the speed of the aeroplane relative to the earth surface.	1. Air speed is the speed of aeroplane relative to the air it is flying in.
2. Ground speed determines how fast an aircraft will get to its destination.	2. Air speed determines whether there is enough airflow around an aircraft to make it fly.
3. Ground speed is the sum of air speed and wind speed.	3. Air speed is independent of ground speed.

solution 3)

For movement on the ground the aircraft uses it own engine power, which is called taxing.

Although many aircrafts are capable of moving in backward using reverse thrust, as result the jet blast or prop wash might cause damage to the terminal building or equipment. Engine close to ground may also blow sand and debris forward and then suck them into the engine, causing damage to the engine. Therefore there are pushback trucks in the airport. A pushback truck lifts the front weel of the aircraft, their role in most airports is to move the aircraft away from the parking spot on to the taxiways, which is called towing.

i) Effectively a loss of control can happen, especially during high power engine running. Damage can occur to the aircraft itself, other aircraft nearby or to airside structures.

ii) There is a risk of injury to ground support personnel who may be in relatively close proximity to the aircraft. iii) It is easier for truck driver to see the surroundings better than the pilot sitting in the cockpit with limited window. The pushback driver knows the airport better than the pilot.

iv) It also saves fuel. virgin Atlantic had proposed a new system in which pushback truck will move the aircraft all the way to runway to save fuel and reduce impact of environment.

v) The plane engines are very loud. When more than one plane will add up their sound, than it will not be pleasent for passangers and others near airport.

SOLUTION 4)

In the parking areas, where taxing the aircraft is not practical or is unsafe, such as moving aircraft in and out of mainteance hangars, or moving aircraft that are not under their own power or moving backward, then towing of aircraft is performed using the power of a specialized ground vehicle attached to or supporting the nose landing gear. The traditional method of allowing the ground vehicle to move an aircraft is to attach it to the aircraft nose landing gear by means of towbar.

TAXIING: Taxiing is the movement of an aircraft on the ground under its own power while on the suface. The aircraft always moves following the yellow lines, to avoid collision with the surrounding buildings, vehicle or other aircrafts. The taxiing motion has a speed limit. Before making turn the pilot reduces speed further to prevent tire skids just like other vehicles. The reason for taxing is to reach the vehicle into runway or from runway to terminal.

The takeoff speed required varies with air density, aircraft weight, and aircraft configuration (flap and/or slat position, as applicable). Air density is affected by factors such as field elevation and air temperature.

SOLUTION 5)

Take off power=>
Power Requirement to Keep a Jet Aircraft in the Air

The total energy of an aircraft flying in the atmosphere can be calculated using equation,
E = ½ m v2+ mgh

However, the engines mounted onto the wings of the plane are required to provide additional energy per time, power, in order to keep the aircraft flying at a constant altitude and speed. This extra power needed to overcome the drag acting on the airplane and is calculated using

P = (dh/dt) m g
where (dh/dt) is the decent speed required to keep the plane's speed constant if the engines fail.

Takeoff and Climb :

When ready for takeoff, and cleared by Air Trafic Control to proceed, the pilot or first officer of an aircraft releases the brakes and advances the throttle to increase engine power to accelerate down the runway.
Once aligned on the runway, steering the aircraft is normally accomplished by using foot pedals that manipulate the nose wheel until the speed is sufficient enough that wind rushing by the rudder on the aircraft tail makes nose wheel steering unnecessary.

As the aircraft gains speed, air passes faster and faster over its wings and lift is created. Instruments onboard the aircraft display this airspeed, which equals not only the speed of the plane relative to the ground, but also the speed of any wind that may be blowing toward the aircraft (aircraft normally take off headed into the wind). When the airspeed reaches a certain predetermined point known as rotation speed, the pilot manipulates panels on the tail of the aircraft to rotate the nose of the plane upward. This creates even stronger lift and the plane leaves the ground.

Rotation speed, abbreviated VR, is one of three important airspeed settings calculated before every flight.

Tyre design :=>

When it comes to safety tyres are one of the most important components of aircraft. They help to absorb the shock of landing and provide cushioning. It also provides the necessary traction for braking and stopping of an aircraft.

An aircraft tyre is designed to withstand extremely heavy loads while landing, take off, taxing and parking. The number of wheels required for aircraft increases with the weight of the aircraft, as the weight of the aeroplane needs to be distributed more evenly.

A Boeing 737NG & 737MAX uses 6 wheels, Boeing 787 uses 10 wheels, Boeing 777 uses 14 wheels and Airbus A380 uses 22 wheels. Aircraft tyres work under extreme conditions, carrying up to 340 tons and accelerating at over 250 km/hour at takeoff, in addition to enduring varied environmental stress when in flight and taxiing.

Design and Construction of Aircraft tyre

Carcass plies are used to form the tire. They are sometimes called casing plies. An aircraft tyre is constructed for the purpose it serves.

1. They support the weight of an aircraft while it is on the ground.
2. It also provides the necessary traction for braking and stopping of an aeroplane.
3. Tyre also helps to absorb the shock of landing and provide cushioning the roughness of takeoff, roll-out, and taxi operations.

Unlike an automobile or truck tyre, it does not have to carry a load for a long period of continuous operation. However, an aircraft tyre absorbs the high impact loads of landing and also it’s operating at high speeds for a short time when required.

SOLUTION 6):

Let us Assume:
Weight of the Aircraft (Boeing 747-8) = 447,700kg
Rolling Resistance Coefficient of an aircraft tire = 0.004
Wight of the Tugs Tractor = 50000kg
Rolling Resistance Coefficient of Towing Vehicle = 0.0035
Then,

Rolling Resistance Force of Tugs Tractor =FRR = CRR x weight = .0035*50,000*9.81 =1,716.75 N
Rolling Resistance Force of aircraft =FRR = CRR x weight =.004*50,000*9.81 =17,567.748 N

Total Rolling Resistance Force = Rolling Resistance Force of aircraft + Tugs Tractor = 17.567+ 1.71675
Total Rolling Resistance Force = 19.28 KN

The Aerodynamic Drag is given by,

rho= Density of Air Medium
A = Frontal Area Of the Vehicle which strike the Air
V = Velocity with the vehicle moves
Cd= Coefficient of Dragwhich varies different shapes of the frontal area.
Calculation:

Let us assume
The Velocity of the Aircraft while Towing = 25 KMPH = 6.944 m/s
Density of Air medium = 1.25 kg/m3
The Frontal area of the Aircraft = 20 m2

The Frontal area of the Aircraft = 1.8 m2
The Coefficient of Drag of the Aircraft = 0.025

The Coefficient of Drag of the Tugs tractor = 1.15

Air drag force = 0.5*rho*A*V^2*Cd
The Air Drag Force of the Aircraft = .5*1.25*20*(6.944^2)*.025 = 15.07 N

The Air Drag Force of the Tugs Tractor = .5*1.25*1.8*(6.944^2)*1.15 = 62.38 N

Total Aerodynamic Drag Force = Air Drag Force of the Aircraft + Air Drag Force of the Tugs Tractor = 15.07 N + 62.38 N
Total Aerodynamic Drag Force = 77.45 N

Therefore the total force that the motor needs to overcome = Total Rolling Resistance Force + Total Aerodynamic Drag Force = 19.28 + .07745 (KN) = 19.362 KN

Thus Total Force that the Motor needs to overcome in order to push/pull the Aircraft = 19.362 KN

The Power Required-

The power required by the motor is given by the velocity with which the towing operation takes place.

The average speed of push/pull = 25 kmph = 6.9444 m/s

Power required by the motor = Total Force*Velocity = 19.362*6.9444

Power Required by The Motor = 134 KW