Project 1

1A. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM :Pneumonia is an infection that inflames the air sacs in one or both lungs. The air sacs may fill with fluid or pus (purulent material), causing cough with phlegm or pus, fever, chills, and difficulty breathing. A variety of organisms, including bacteria, viruses and fungi, can cause pneumonia.Common symptoms of pneumonia include: a cough – which may be dry, or produce thick yellow, green, brown or blood-stained mucus (phlegm) difficulty breathing – your breathing may be rapid and shallow, and you may feel breathless, even when resting. rapid heartbeat.

• Influenza viruses.
• Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
• SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19)A severe inflammation of the lungs in which the alveoli (tiny air sacs) are filled with fluid. This may cause a decrease in the amount of oxygen that blood can absorb from air breathed into the lung.

• ANATOMY OF LUNG : The lungs are the major organs of the respiratory system, and are divided into sections, or lobes. The right lung has three lobes and is slightly larger than the left lung, which has two lobes.

  The lungs are separated by the mediastinum. This area contains the heart, trachea, esophagus, and many lymph nodes. The lungs are covered by a protective membrane known as the pleura and are separated from the abdominal cavity by the muscular diaphragm.

  With each inhalation, air is pulled through the windpipe (trachea) and the branching passageways of the lungs (the bronchi), filling thousands of tiny air sacs (alveoli) at the ends of the bronchi. These sacs, which resemble bunches of grapes, are surrounded by small blood vessels (capillaries). Oxygen passes through the thin membranes of the alveoli and into the bloodstream. The red blood cells pick up the oxygen and carry it to the body's organs and tissues. As the blood cells release the oxygen they pick up carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism. The carbon dioxide is then carried back to the lungs and released into the alveoli. With each exhalation, carbon dioxide is expelled from the bronchi out through the trachea.

• MICRO SCOPIC AND MACROSCOPIC STRUCTER : The alveoli are responsible for the spongy nature of the lung. These alveoli are lined by flattened epithelial cells called pneumocytes with a single opening. The alveolar wall or septum is made up of three tissue components: surface epithelium, supporting tissue, and an extensive network of continuous capillaries.
• The bronchial artery is the main source of blood supply for the bronchi.The lung receives innervation from two main sources: the pulmonary plexus (a combination of parasympathetic and sympathetic innervation) and the phrenic nerve. The pulmonary plexus is at the root of the lung and consists of efferent and afferent autonomic nerve fibers.
• 2A. Common symptoms of pneumonia include fever, chills, shortness of breath, chest pain with breathing, a rapid heart and breathing rate, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and a cough that often produces green or yellow sputum (mucus from the lungs); occasionally, the sputum is rust colored.
• A chest X-ray is often used to diagnose pneumonia. Blood tests, such as a complete blood count (CBC) see whether your immune system is fighting an infection. Pulse oximetry measures how much oxygen is in your blood. Pneumonia can keep your lungs from getting enough oxygen into your blood
• A blood culture test can identify the germ causing your pneumonia and also show whether a bacterial infection has spread to your blood. A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test quickly checks your blood or sputum sample to find the DNA of germs that cause pneumonia. A bronchoscopy looks inside your airways
• Streptococcus pneumoniae, the most common pathogen associated with CAP, is easily detected by PCR in respiratory specimens. PCR techniques based on amplification of the pneumolysin or autolysin genes are applicable for the diagnosis of pneumonia, otitis media, and meningitis.

3A. The main treatment for pneumonia is antibiotics, along with rest and drinking plenty of water. If you have chest pain, you can take pain killers such as paracetamol. Treatment depends on how severe your pneumonia is. Treatment with antibiotics should be started as soon as possible after diagnosis

Over-the-counter medicines to relieve pain and lower fever are usually recommended. Other medicines and therapies such as breathing treatments and exercises to loosen mucus may be prescribed by your doctor. Fungal pneumonia: Antifungal medication is prescribed if a fungus is the cause of your pneumonia.

Surgical interventions may include: Chest tubes to drain infected plural fluid. Thoracotomy, which involves an incision to open the chest and view the lungs so that dead and damaged lung tissue can be removed. Lobectomy, removing a part of the lung affected by pneumonia.

PART B : case study : skull is made up of crenial bones ,facial bone like flat bone ,irregular bone ect . The basic microscopic unit of bone is an osteon (or Haversian system). Osteons are roughly cylindrical structures that can measure several millimeters long and around 0.2 mm in diameter. Each osteon consists of a lamellae of compact bone tissue that surround a central canal (Haversian canal)

The blood supply to bone is delivered to the endosteal cavity by nutrient arteries, then flows through marrow sinusoids before exiting via numerous small vessels that ramify through the cortex.

Bone ossification, or osteogenesis, is the process of bone formation. This process begins between the sixth and seventh weeks of embryonic development and continues until about age twenty-five; although this varies slightly based on the individual.