Project-1: Powertrain for aircraft in runways

1.Search and list out the total weight of various types of aircrafts:

Aircraft plays a vital role in the field of engineering. We are using the aircraft for various purposes with slightly modifying the technology.

Three types of aircraft used. They are

1. Commercial Planes.

2. Private Planes.

3.Propeller Panes.

Weights:

The different terms represent different weights or masses1. For each flight, the weights are taken into account for several reasons.

A brief description about these is below:

Manufacturer's empty weight (MEW)
Also called Manufacturer's Weight Empty (MWE) or Licensed Empty Weight

It is the weight of the aircraft "as built" and includes the weight of the structure, power plant, furnishings, installations, systems and other equipment that are considered an integral part of an aircraft.

This excludes any baggage, passengers, or usable fuel2.

Zero-fuel weight (ZFW):

This is the total weight of the airplane and all its contents (including unusable fuel), but excluding the total weight of the usable fuel on board.

As a flight progresses and fuel is consumed, the total weight of the airplane reduces, but the ZFW remains constant.

Maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW) is the maximum weight allowed before usable fuel and other specified usable agents (engine injection fluid, and other consumable propulsion agents) are loaded.

Operating empty weight (OEW) (Roughly equivalent to basic empty weight on light aircraft)

It is the basic weight of an aircraft including the crew, all fluids necessary for operation such as engine oil, engine coolant, water, unusable fuel and all operator items and equipment required for flight but excluding usable fuel and the payload.

Payload

It is the carrying capacity of an aircraft. It includes cargo, people, extra fuel. In the case of a commercial airliner, it may refer only to revenue-generating cargo or paying passengers.

Maximum takeoff weight (MTOW)

This is the maximum weight at which the pilot of the aircraft is allowed to attempt to take off.

Regulated takeoff weight (RTOW)

Depending on different factors (e.g. flap setting, altitude, air temperature, length of runway), RTOW or maximum permissible takeoff weight varies for each takeoff. It can never be higher than MTOW. More information is on this answer.

Maximum landing weight (MLW)

This maximum weight at which an aircraft is permitted to land.

Maximum ramp weight (MRW) also called maximum taxi weight (MTW)

It is the maximum weight authorized for maneuvering (taxiing or towing) an aircraft on the ground.

Aircraft gross weight

It is the total aircraft weight at any moment during the flight or ground operation. This decreases during flight due to fuel and oil consumption.

Types of Commercial Airplanes

Jumbo Passenger Jets
Mid-Size Passenger Jets
Light Passenger Jets
Passenger Turboprops
Cargo Airplanes

Types of Private Jets

VLJ (Very Light Jets)
Light Business Jets
Mid-Size Business Jets
Heavy Business Jets
Military Jets

Types of Propeller Planes

Private Single Engine
Twin Turboprops
Aerobatic
Amphibious
Military Turboprops

Types of Commercial Airplanes

1. Jumbo Passenger Jets

The Boeing 747 was the first wide-body commercial jet to earn the moniker “Jumbo Jet.” Boeing never imagined that the subsonic 747 would continue to hold popularity, in light of the supersonic jets in development at the time. Nevertheless, Boeing went on to sell over 1,554 of these jumbo passenger jets, which can be quickly converted into passenger or cargo planes.

Airbus is Boeing‘s only major rival in Jumbo Jet sales. Although it is only four decades old, Airbus has taken a marginal lead in market share. The chief weakness of Airbus is that their A380 models have steadily lost popularity among airliners because of their massive size. The profitability of such a massive jet is limited unless you are flying from a large central hub to a large central hub.

2. Mid-Size Passenger Jets

Mid-size passenger jets, such as the Airbus 350-1000, have a narrower body. Although they can still carry over 350 passengers, these planes can’t match the 600-passenger capacity of a Boeing 747 in a single class configuration. The Airbus A380 further dwarfs that number with its 853-passenger capacity in a single class configuration. But the Boeing 737 recently expanded its range by 900 nautical miles to reach 3,000 for transcontinental flights.

Of course, these mid-size commercial jets are desirable among airliners because they sustain greater profitability in seasonal routes and on smaller flights. The lower price tag also makes them attractive from an investment standpoint. When you consider the flexibility of configuring the Airbus 380 or even a Boeing 787 for different routes, it makes sense to hedge against market trends by choosing a model that is more flexible.

3. Light Passenger Jets

In the light passenger jet range, the seating for passengers is typically 60 to 100. The Embraer 175 can travel 1,800 miles at a cruising speed of 545 miles per hour. The smaller size of light passenger jets makes them the ideal choice for economy airlines. The seating is evenly divided into two sections on each side of a center aisle. Larger jets have three sections and two aisles.

The light passenger jets are popular for regional routes. Because they consume less fuel and require less investment, an owner can quickly reap a profit by flying their plane to popular destinations from larger central hubs. A plane from Los Angeles to Las Vegas, for example, would be an easy way of generating revenue off the investment without facing the strict regulations imposed by flights over seas.

4. Passenger Turboprops

Although turboprops are not as reliable as jet engines, aircraft are much safer than ground transportation because they are built for reliability. In addition, once the planes reach cruising altitude, there are not many factors which can negatively influence planes that fly over the weather. The friction and geography of the terrestrial landscape and weather are the hardest burdens for automotive engineers to face.

Turboprop engines are more fuel-efficient than jet engines, however. Since fuel is one of the greatest expenses for an airliner, this makes them a better investment. A passenger turboprop can also operate and take off from shorter runways. This opens up the doors to flying a greater variety of short flights to meet the market demands. The larger prop planes, such as the Bombardier Q400, can carry up to 80 passengers.

5.Cargo Airplanes

Cargo planes have a larger scope than any of the other types because they are a conversion of the subtypes. As stated, the Boeing 747 can be converted into a cargo plane if desired. But Boeing also manufacturers jets specifically for cargo, such as the Boeing Dreamlifter. The Dreamlifter hauls up to 65,000 cubic feet of cargo. This is only defeated by the 78,000 cubic feet of the Airbus Beluga XL.

At the bottom of the range, Cessna makes cargo planes on a small propeller-driven aircraft design. This aircraft can carry 340 cubic feet or 12 passengers. As stated, the propeller-driven airplanes will reach remote areas with smaller airstrips. This makes them busier than the larger flights because they can fill a lot of voids in the chain of distribution. Airplanes age better when used because the aluminum, otherwise, deteriorates.

2. Types of Private Jets

1. VLJ (Very Light Jets)

Very light jets are primarily for short trips to regional destinations. They typically offer seating for up to eight passengers. The advantage of these jets is that you can hire a single pilot to fly them instead of an entire flight crew. Some models also boast of low operating costs that are on par with turboprop planes. They are the ideal solution for reaching more remote destinations that airlines avoid.

These planes are mainly used for flights that are 40 to 80 minutes in duration. As such, they do not offer a separate lavatory compartment but only an emergency style toilet with a privacy curtain. These planes are still a relatively new concept. The first design, the Cessna Citation Mustang, wasn’t produced until November of 2006. These jets are the lightest business jets on the market for air taxi services.

2.Light Business Jets

Some light business jets are capable of transcontinental flights of 2,400 nautical miles or more. The definition of a light business jet is that the maximum takeoff weight is 20,000 lbs. compared to just half that for very light jets. And most light business jets can still maintain an average cruising speed of about 500 mph. This makes them on par with the larger commercial jets but ideal for private trips.

These jets usually have a dedicated lavatory compartment and offer more cabin space than VLJ models. They are also loaded with all the technology that you could ever need to conduct business meetings remotely while in flight. Satellite phone, Wi-Fi, and XM radio communications are all onboard. They also feature cabin pressurization that you won’t find in many smaller aircraft. Cabin pressurization is necessary to sustain oxygen levels at higher altitudes.

3. Mid-Size Business Jets

While the typical VLJ and light jet carry a maximum of six passengers, a mid-size business jet offers comfortable seating for up to 10 passengers. You will find that the luxuries and amenities grow with each class. While they all hover around 500 miles per hour at cruising speed and offer the ability to land on smaller runways, a mid-size jet has larger parties in mind for longer transcontinental trips.

Take a non-stop flight in a range of 2,000 to 3,000 nautical miles and work comfortably in the larger pressurized cabin. Indeed, there is even a subtype of mid-size business jets called super mid-size. These planes are fuel-efficient and designed to travel even longer distances faster. A super mid-size can travel as much as 580 mph over a distance of 3,600 miles or more.

4. Heavy Business Jets

These jets are often converted from larger commercial airline jets into luxury liners. The advantage of a heavy business jet is the ability to conduct full-scale meetings and conferences. They accommodate anywhere from 10 to 18 passengers and are able to fly at high altitudes above the weather for maximum comfort and reliability. They also have single flight ranges that exceed 6,000 miles over a span of six to eight hours.

The Boeing 747 8 VIP is an example of a conversion from commercial passenger to a private luxury business jet. The large cabin space is what makes these planes so attractive. A business can literally build offices and work departments inside the jet as they would in a building. The focus on luxury and convenience is just a perk to make the workers more productive during long and critical business flights.

5. Military Jets

Although it would not be legal for you to own a fully armed F 18 hornet, military jets are among the best performance airplanes on the market. Most military jets are supersonic fighter jets that are used to engage with enemy combatants or to bomb strategic targets in a top-secret mission. These jets cost billions of dollars to develop. They are deployed from air force bases and navy carriers.

It is amazing to see them land on the tiny airstrip of the carrier by hooking a cable. Most also have the capability to refuel in the air without landing. They are often flown in flight formations that are led by a single jet in the same manner that birds migrate in V-shaped formations. U.S. fighter jets are renowned for their ability to maneuver and roll in acrobatic precision.

3. Types of Propeller Planes

1. Private Single Engine

Although you would think that the propeller-driven engine has been outmoded by modern-day jet engines, think again. Over 27 percent of the flights are still by propeller-driven airplanes. This is because over 80 percent of U.S. domestic flights are only one to two hours long. Why go through all the hassles of boarding a jet when you can take a small private propeller plane to even the remotest destination.

Private propeller planes are especially popular in remote areas of the country, such as Alaska. In many regions of Alaska, there is no other method of transportation unless you have a dog sled. A single-engine propeller plane is suitable for distances of 100 to 500 miles. To go any further than that, you will probably need a turboprop engine that is rated for travel of 1,200 miles or more.

2. Twin Turboprops

Although the operating cost of a turboprop is more on par with a jet, they often have a larger hauling capacity than many light jets. The turboprop jet engines can also dive and climb straight up without stalling out. The other key advantage of the twin turboprop is its ability to land in grassy fields or other makeshift runways. Most twin turboprop planes can also be flown with just a single pilot.

The turboprop engine is a lot more like a jet engine. However, instead of using the exhaust gases, themselves, to propel the aircraft, the shaft is rotated to turn a variable pitch propeller. The downside of a propeller is that it loses its efficiency at higher speeds. This is why they are not used in supersonic aircraft; although they can still perform well at speeds of 0.6 Mach.

3. Aerobatic

Many former air force pilots find themselves missing the thrill of high-speed maneuvers in fighter jets. While it may be impossible for them to ever get their hands on a fighter jet again, an aerobatic plane is a suitable substitute. These planes are fast and perform stunts in the air, such as dives and rolls. Because they are light and easy to maneuver, they are often involved in choreographed drills.

In order to properly fly an aerobatic stunt plane, the pilots require hours and hours of advanced training. If they have a military background, this can reduce the learning curve significantly. Accustoming oneself to the g-forces and disorientation that occurs under intense acrobatic performances is something that is much easier if they went through years of flight school and spent significant time in military fighter jets.

4. Amphibious

Amphibious aircraft are specially designed to take off and land in freshwater lakes and seas. Some planes can even be fitted with keels that are reinforced to handle a landing on terrain covered by snow or ice. Tourism to remote areas may also require the use of an amphibious aircraft. In fact, some models of amphibious aircraft also have retractable wheels that allow them to land on ordinary landing strips.

The downside of an amphibious plane is that the models which boast of a full range of landing capabilities are heavier and require greater maintenance. It is always better to use a plane for dedicated purposes by landing on either land or water. Positioning the wheels for a terrestrial or aqua landing is another problem that pilots face in convertible planes. If the wheels aren’t adjusted properly, damage will ensue.

5. Military Turboprops

The military is still developing and using turboprop planes for cargo transport and light attack fighters. Because the turboprops provide better fuel economy and are cheaper to manufacture and deploy into regions where light-duty fighters are needed, they are still preferred over jets in some applications. Nevertheless, the Embraer Super Tucano still carries an amazing 3,300 pounds of weaponry. Because the military has a limited operating budget, turboprops are practical.

MTOW = Maximum take-off weight, MLW = Maximum landing weight, TOR = Take-off run (SL, ISA+15°, MTOW), LR = Landing run (SL, ISA+15°, MLW)

Type	MTOW [kg]	MLW [tons]	TOR [m]	LR [m]	ICAO category	FAA category
Antonov An-225	640,000	591.7	3500		Heavy	Super
Scaled Composites Model 351 Stratolaunch	589,670		3660		Heavy	Super
Airbus A380-800[1][2]	575,000	394	3100	1930	Heavy	Super
Boeing 747-8F	447,700	346.091	3100	1800	Heavy	Heavy
Boeing 747-8	443,613	306.175	3100		Heavy	Heavy
Boeing 747-400ER	412,770	295.742	3090		Heavy	Heavy
Antonov An-124-100M	405,060	330	2520	900	Heavy	Heavy
Boeing 747-400	396,900	295.742	3018	2179	Heavy	Heavy
Lockheed C-5 Galaxy[3][4][5]	381,000	288.417	2530	1494	Heavy	Heavy
Boeing 747-200[6]	377,840	285.700	3338	2109	Heavy	Heavy
Boeing 747-300[6]	377,840	260.320	3222	1905	Heavy	Heavy
Airbus A340-500[7]	371,950	240	3050	2010	Heavy	Heavy
Airbus A340-600[7]	367,400	256	3100	2100	Heavy	Heavy
Boeing 777F	347,800	260.816	2830		Heavy	Heavy
Boeing 777-300ER	351,800	251.29	3100		Heavy	Heavy
Boeing 777-200LR	347,450	223.168	3000		Heavy	Heavy
Boeing 747-100[6]	340,200	265.300			Heavy	Heavy
Airbus A350-1000	308,000	233.5			Heavy	Heavy
Boeing 777-300	299,370	237.683	3380		Heavy	Heavy
Boeing 777-200ER	297,550	213.00	3380	1550	Heavy	Heavy
Airbus A340-300[7][8]	276,700	190	3000	1926	Heavy	Heavy
McDonnell Douglas MD-11	273,300	185	2990	1890	Heavy	Heavy
Airbus A350-900	270,000	175	2670	1860	Heavy	Heavy
Ilyushin Il-96M	270,000	195.04	3115	2118	Heavy	Heavy
McDonnell Douglas DC-10	256,280	183	2990	1890	Heavy	Heavy
Boeing 787-9[9]	254,000	192.777	2900		Heavy	Heavy
Boeing 787-10[9]	254,000	201.849			Heavy	Heavy
Airbus A340-200[7][10]	253,500	181	2990		Heavy	Heavy
Ilyushin IL-96-300	250,000	175	2600	1980	Heavy	Heavy
Airbus A330-300[11][12]	242,000	185	2500	1750	Heavy	Heavy
Airbus A330-200[11][12]	242,000	180	2220	1750	Heavy	Heavy
Lockheed L-1011-500	231,300	166.92	2636		Heavy	Heavy
Boeing 787-8[9]	228,000	172.365	3300	1695	Heavy	Heavy
Lockheed L-1011-200	211,400				Heavy	Heavy
Ilyushin IL-86	208,000	175			Heavy	Heavy
Boeing 767-400ER	204,000	158.758	3414		Heavy	Heavy
Airbus A300-600R[13]	192,000	140	2385	1555	Heavy	Heavy
Boeing 767-300ER	187,000	136.08	2713	1676	Heavy	Heavy
Concorde	185,000	111.1	3440	2220	Heavy	Heavy
Airbus A300-600[13]	163,000	138	2324	1536	Heavy	Heavy
Boeing 767-300	159,000	136.078	2713	1676	Heavy	Heavy
Airbus A310-300[13]	157,000	124	2290	1490	Heavy	Heavy
Vickers VC10	152,000	151.9			Heavy	Heavy
Boeing 707-320B[14]	151,000	97.5			Heavy	Heavy
Boeing 707-320C[14]	151,000	112.1			Heavy	Heavy
Douglas DC-8-61	147,000				Heavy	Heavy
Airbus A310-200[13]	142,000	123	1860	1480	Heavy	Heavy
Airbus A400M	141,000	122	980	770	Heavy	Heavy
Douglas DC-8-32	140,000				Heavy	Heavy
Douglas DC-8-51	125,000				Medium	Large
Boeing 757-300	124,000	101.6	2550	1750	Medium	Large
Boeing 707-120B[14]	117,000	86.3			Medium	Large
Boeing 757-200	116,000	89.9	2347	1555	Medium	Large
Boeing 720B[15]	106,000	79.5			Medium	Large
Boeing 720[15]	104,000	79.5			Medium	Large
Tupolev Tu-154M	104,000	80			Medium	Large
Tupolev Tu-204SM	104,000	87.5	2250		Medium	Large
Convair 880	87,500				Medium	Large
Boeing 737-900	85,000	66.36	2500	1704	Medium	Large
Boeing 737-900ER	85,000	71.35	2804	1829	Medium	Large
Boeing 727-200 Advanced[16]	84,000	70.1			Medium	Large
Airbus A321-100[17]	83,000	77.8	2200	1540	Medium	Large
Boeing 737-800	79,000	65.32	2308	1634	Medium	Large
Boeing 727-200[16]	78,000	68.1			Medium	Large
McDonnell-Douglas MD-83	73,000	63.28			Medium	Large
Boeing 727-100[16]	72,500	62.4			Medium	Large
Boeing 727-100C[16]	72,500	62.4			Medium	Large
McDonnell-Douglas MD-90-30	71,000	64.41	2165	1520	Medium	Large
de Havilland Comet 4	70,700				Medium	Large
Boeing 737-700	70,000	58.06	1921	1415	Medium	Large
Airbus A320-100[17]	68,000	66	1955	1490	Medium	Large
Boeing 737-400	68,000	54.9	2540	1540	Medium	Large
de Havilland Comet 3	68,000				Medium	Large
Boeing 377	67,000				Medium	Large
Boeing 737-600	66,000	54.66	1796	1340	Medium	Large
Airbus A220-300	65,000	57.61	1890	1494	Medium	Large
Hawker Siddeley Trident 2E	65,000				Medium	Large
Airbus A319[17]	64,000	62.5	1850	1470	Medium	Large
Boeing 737-300	63,000	51.7	1939	1396	Medium	Large
Boeing 737-500	60,000	49.9	1832	1360	Medium	Large
Airbus A220-100	59,000	50.80	1463	1356	Medium	Large
Airbus A318[17]	59,000	57.5	1375	1340	Medium	Large
Boeing 717-200HGW	55,000	47.174	1950		Medium	Large
Douglas DC-7	55,000				Medium	Large
de Havilland Comet 2	54,000				Medium	Large
Boeing 717-200BGW	50,000	46.265	1950		Medium	Large
de Havilland Comet 1	50,000				Medium	Large
Douglas DC-6A	48,600				Medium	Large
Douglas DC-6B	48,500				Medium	Large
Embraer 190[18]	48,000	43	2056	1323	Medium	Large
Caravelle III	46,000				Medium	Large
Fokker 100	46,000	39.95	1621	1350	Medium	Large
Douglas DC-6	44,000				Medium	Large
Avro RJ-85	42,000	36.74			Medium	Large
Handley Page Hermes	39,000				Medium	Large
Embraer 175[19]	37,500	32.8	2244	1304	Medium	Large
Bombardier CRJ900[20]	36,500	33.345	1778	1596	Medium	Large
Embraer 170[21]	36,000	32.8	1644	1274	Medium	Large
Bombardier CRJ700	33,000	30.39	1564	1478	Medium	Large
Douglas DC-4	33,000				Medium	Large
Vickers Viscount 800	30,400				Medium	Large
Bombardier Q400	28,000	28.01	1219	1295	Medium	Large
Bombardier CRJ200	23,000	21.319	1918	1479	Medium	Large
ATR 72-600	22,800	22.35	1333	914	Medium	Large
Saab 2000	22,800	21.5	1300		Medium	Large
Embraer ERJ 145	22,000	19.3	2270	1380	Medium	Large
ATR 42-500	18,600	18.3	1165	1126	Medium	Small
Saab 340	13,150	12.930	1300	1030	Medium	Small
Embraer 120 Brasilia	11,500	11.25	1560	1380	Medium	Small
BAe Jetstream 41	10,890	10.570	1493	826	Medium	Small
Learjet 75[22]	9,752	8.709	1353	811	Medium	Small
Pilatus PC-24[23]	8,300	7.665	893	724	Medium	Small
Embraer Phenom 300[24]	8,150	7.65	956	677	Medium	Small
Beechcraft 1900D	7,765	7.605	1036	853	Medium	Small
Cessna Citation CJ4[25]	7,761	7.103	1039	896	Medium	Small
de Havilland Hercules	7,000				Medium	Small
Embraer Phenom 100	4,800	4.43	975	741	Light	Small

2. Is there any difference between ground speed and air speed?

While ground speed is the airplane’s speed relative to the surface of the Earth, airspeed – at least true airspeed – is its speed relative to the air it is flying in.

As mentioned above, true airspeed is simply the speed at which an aircraft is moving relative to the air it is flying in. As such, it’s also the speed at which the air is flowing around the aircraft’s wings.

Ground speed, on the other hand, is the aircraft’s speed relative to the ground. One thing that should be noted here is that it’s its horizontal rather than vertical speed – an aircraft climbing completely vertically would have a ground speed of zero.

In other words, while airspeed is what determines whether there is enough airflow around an aircraft to make it fly, ground speed is what determines how fast an aircraft will get to its destination.

The relationship between airspeed and ground speed is fairly simple. Ground speed is simply the sum of airspeed and wind speed.

If the aircraft is flying in the same direction as the wind is blowing, the aircraft experiences tailwind, and its ground speed is higher than its airspeed. On the other hand, if the wind is blowing against the direction the aircraft is traveling in, the aircraft experiences headwind, and its ground speed is lower than its airspeed.

The Three Types of Airspeed:

However, pilots commonly use three different types of airspeed: indicated airspeed, calibrated airspeed, and true airspeed.

Indicated airspeed is an airspeed that is calculated directly off an aircraft’s pitot-static system. It’s the calculated off the aircraft’s dynamic pressure – the difference between its total pressure and static pressure.

The dynamic pressure depends not only on the aircraft’s speed, but also on the density of the air it is flying in. As such, the higher the aircraft flies – and the lower the air density as a result – the bigger the difference between indicated and true airspeed is.

Calibrated airspeed is indicated airspeed adjusted for a variety of errors.

True airspeed is, as has been mentioned numerous times in this article, the actual speed at which an aircraft is moving relative to the air it is traveling in. It’s calibrated airspeed adjusted for the the exact conditions (altitude, air temperature, etc.) that the aircraft is flying in.

3.Why is it not recommended to use aircraft engine power to move it on the ground at Airport?

Airplanes are equipped with engines rated from 18,000 to nearly 100,000 lb of thrust. Such thrust levels provide for safe takeoff, flight, and landing over a wide range of temperatures, altitudes, gross weights, and payload conditions. However, the exhaust wake from these engines can pose hazards in commercial airport environments. Operators and airport authorities must carefully consider these hazards and the resulting potential for injury to people and damage to or caused by baggage carts, service vehicles, airport infrastructure, and other airplanes.

So because of this it is not recommend to use aircraft engine to move it on the ground at airport.

4. How an aircraft is pushed to runway when its ready to take off?

The Usage of the aircraft engine power makes some hazardous to the surrounding environment. In current technology they are using the electric power to do this. But there is a process called taxing.

Taxiing is the movement of an aircraft on the ground, under its own power, in contrast to towing or push-back where the aircraft is moved by a tug. The aircraft usually moves on wheels, but the term also includes aircraft with skis or floats (for water-based travel).

An airplane uses taxiways to taxi from one place on an airport to another; for example, when moving from a hangar to the runway. The term "taxiing" is not used for the accelerating run along a runway prior to takeoff, or the decelerating run immediately after landing, which are called the takeoff roll and landing rollout, respectively. Even they can do the towing.

5. Learn about take off power, tyre design, rolling resistance, tyre pressure, brake forces when landing.

Take off Power:

The Power which used to lift the plane from ground to air is Take off power.

Takeoff is the phase of flight in which an aerospace vehicle goes from the ground to flying in the air. In simple terms an aeroplane take’s off when it reaches a certain velocity and generates enough lift so that it can cancel the forces of gravity acting on it as well as the drag presented by the air.

Tyre Design:

As a function of its purpose, an aircraft tire must withstand a wide range of operational conditions. When on the ground, itmust support the weight of the aircraft. During taxi, it must provide a stable cushioned ride while resisting heat generation,abrasion and wear. At take-off, the tire structure must be able to endure not only the aircraft load but also the forcesgenerated at high angular velocities. Landing requires the tire to absorb impact shocks while also transmitting high dynamicbraking loads to the ground. All of this must be accomplished while providing a long, dependable, reliable, service life.These extreme demands require a tire which is highly engineered and manufactured to precise conditions. For this reason,tires are designed as a composite of various rubbers, fabric and steel products. Each of the components serves a very specificfunction in the performance of the tire. The conventional cross-ply or BIAS tire, and the RADIAL tire.

Retreading – Retreading is methods of restoring a worn tyre by renewing the tread area or by renewing the tread area plus one or both sidewalls. Repairs are included in the tyre retreading process.

Load Rating – Load rating is the maximum permissible load at a specified inflation pressure.

Ply Rating – Ply Rating is used to identify the maximum recommended load rating and inflation pressure for a specified tyre. It is an index of tyre strength.

Speed Rating – The speed rating is the maximum takeoff speed to which the tyre has been tested.

Skid Depth – Skid depth is the distance between the tread surface and the deepest groove as measured in the mould.

Aircraft tyres must have an approved speed and load rating and have sufficient clearance when retracted through landing gear to allow for tyre growth. Tyre growth is the increase in the size of the tyre due to centrifugal forces at high speed.

Chines are also called deflectors. Chine tyre used on the nose wheel of aircraft, specially fuselage-mounted jet engines. It diverts runway water away from the engine inlets.

Chines are circumferential protrusions that are moulded into the sidewall of nose tyres that deflect water sideways to help reduce excess water ingestion into the engines. Tyres may have chines on one or both sides, depending on the number of nose tyres on the aircraft.

Rolling Resistance:

It is nothing but the rolling friction that occur in the tyre while it is moving. In case of aircraft rolling resistance is occure only on the ground run. It is the important factor for the aircraft helps the increase the lifetime. Because there is chance of heat generation occur and damage to the tyre and due to the rolling resistace aircraft steer in wrong direction also while it run on the ground.

Tyre Pressure:

Tyre Pressure is major parameter. Because when the planes are landing the ground. The overall weight acting on the tyre. Eventhough the tyre not slipped and it match the rotational velocity to the plane velocity which creates the smoke and does not explode beacue of the high pressure which is inflated on the tyre.

Airplane wheel/tire assemblies are inflated to high pressures (many in excess of 200 psi). In addition, the pressure in the bottle or tire-servicing cart can be as high as 3,000 psi. As a result, when the high-pressure bottle is connected directly to the wheel without a regulator, the wheel is suddenly subjected to the high pressure, which can exceed the design limits for the wheel and the wheel tie bolts. Consequently, the wheel, the wheel tie bolts, or both experience an explosive fracture and become projectiles.

Brake Force when landing:

Aircraft brakes stop a moving aircraft by converting its kinetic energy to heat energy by means of friction between rotating and stationary discs located in brake assemblies in the wheels.

Brakes provide this critical stopping function during landings to enable airplanes to stop within the length of the runway. They also stop aircraft during rejected takeoff events, in which an attempted takeoff is canceled as the airplane is rolling down the runway before it lifts off from the ground due to engine failure, tire blowout, other system failure or direction from air traffic control.

The most common type of brake used on aircraft is the disc brake. Disc brakes function by exploiting friction between rotating and stationary discs inside the brake.

Upon receiving a command signal to brake — from the pilot depressing a foot pedal or from the autobrake system — actuators in the brake move a piston to squeeze the discs together, generating a frictional force that slows the rotation of the wheel. The friction between the discs generates heat as the aircraft’s kinetic energy is converted to heat energy. In this function, the brakes act as a heat sink, absorbing tremendous amounts of heat as the aircraft sheds kinetic energy. During RTO stops, the temperature of carbon disc brakes can exceed 1,800° C.

6. With necessary assumptions, calculate the force and power required to push / pull an aircraft by a towing vehicle.

Assumption:

1. Here I am assuming only the Rolling resistance force is acting. Since the Towing is move in a low speed there is not much effect caused by aerodynamic force.

2. It is a straight plane road so no need to calculate hill climbing force.

Formula Used:

Total Force= F(hill climbing Force) + F(aerodynamic force) + F(rolling resistance) + F(acceleration)

Towing of aeroplane happened by a very low velocity. So effect of acceleration force is small.

So only rolling resistance force is calculated. From this force we can assume 20% to get the accurate result (which is the combination of other forces.)

Power = Total Force * Velocity.

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%Calculating Force and Power required to push the aeroplane by towing
%vehicle

%Assumption: Towing happened in a very low velocity and in a straigh road.
%so Hill climbing, acceleration and aerodynamic force are neglected because
%it cause very small effect.

Ma = 40000 % Mass of the aeroplane kg.
Mv = 1000  % Mass of the vehicle kg.
mu = 0.02  % Rolling friction coefficient for tarmac .
g  = 9.81  % acceleration due to gravity
V  = 20*(5/18) % velocity in m/s

Fr= mu*(Ma+Mv)*g

Total_force= 0.2*Fr + Fr

Power = Total_force*V

Ans:

Ma =

       40000


Mv =

        1000


mu =

    0.0200


g =

    9.8100


V =

    5.5556


Fr =

   8.0442e+03


Total_force =

   9.6530e+03


Power =

       53628

>> 

Total Force required os 9.6 KN.

Total Power required to push/ pull the airplane for the vehicle is 53.628 KW.

For Motor:

Torque = Total_Force *radius of the wheel = 9.65 * 1000 * 0.25 =2412.5 Nm

P/T=omega = 22.22

N (rpm)=210.

Therefore for this we need to use the above motor specification.

7. Design an electric powertrain with type of motor, it’s power rating, and energy requirement to fulfill aircraft towing application. Estimate the duty cycle range to control the aircraft speed from zero to highest. Make all required assumptions. Prepare a table of assumed parameters. Draw a block diagram of powertrain.

Power Rating For the motor:

I am considering the above calculation. From that we get to know that power required for the vehicle is 53.628 KW and torque required is 2412.5 Nm and 210 rpm.

If we are considering this power there is a chance of excess power we need. For this safety reason we will choose the power higher than this power.

Motor Power rating- 55 KW is required.

Here for this heavy load i am using 3 phase AC Induction Motor.

Energy Requirement To fulfill aircraft towing :

Energy = Power * Time.

The time we are considering the taxing time. (i.e) Towing the airplane . Let consider the towing time as T=1 min

Energy= 53.628 kW * 60 sec = 3217.68 KJ.

Duty Cycle Range:

Duty cycle = Output Voltage or Battery Voltage/Average Voltage.

Lets consider the motor have the rated power of 75 KW, rated Voltage 380 V and Full Load Current 219 A.

Pin = Vin * Iin

Vin=pin/Iin = (75 *1000)/219 = 342 V

Pout = Vout * Iout

Vout/Vin = 53.628/75 =0.71

Therefore, Duty Cycle ratio is 71% and range of duty cycle is [0, 71%].

Block Diagram: