Project-1: Powertrain for aircraft in runways
STUDY 1: Weight of Various Types of Aircrafts
An aircraft's gross weight will decrease during a flight when fuel and oil is being consumed. Gross weight may also vary during a flight due to payload dropping or in flight refueling. At the time of releasing its brakes, the gross weight of an aircraft is equal to its takeoff weight. During flight, an it's gross weight is referred to as the en-route weight or in-flight weight. An aircraft's gross weight is limited by several weight restriction. To avoid overloading its structure or to avoid unacceptable performance or handling qualities while in operation aircraft gross weight limits are established during an aircraft's design and certification period .
There are different types of aircrafts, those are elaborated below-
1. AEROPLANE>> An airplane or aeroplane (informally plane) is a powered, fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine or propeller or by rocket engine. Aeroplanes come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and wing configuration. The broad spectrum of uses for airplanes includes recreation, transporation of goods and people, defense , and research.
Fig- Fighter Jet Plane F-22A Weight-19700 Kg
Fig- Boeing 747-400 Weight- 183500 Kg
Fig- Nakajima B5N Weight- 3800 Kg
List of some aeroplane weight- Aeroplane Weight List
2. HELICOPTER>> A helicopter, sometimes referred to in slang as a "chopper" or "helo" is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by horizontally-spinning rotors. This allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forward, backward, and laterally.
Fig- MD Helicopters 520N NOTAR Weight-800 Kg
Fig- Bell 206 Weight- 1451 Kg
Fig- Westland WAH-64 Apache Longbow Weight- 10433Kg
List of some Helicopter weight- Helicopter Weight List
3. AIRSHIP>> An airship or dirigible balloon is a type of aerostat or lighter-than-air aircraft that can navigate through the air under its own power. Aerostats gain their lift from a lifting gas that is less dense than the surrounding air. Airships were the first aircraft capable of controlled powered flight, and were most commonly used before the 1940s; their use decreased as their capabilities were surpassed by those of aeroplanes.
Fig- Zeppelin NT D-LZZF Weight- 6622Kg
Fig- The Bodensee Weight- 13646 Kg
Fig- R 101 Weight- 133229 Kg
4. GLIDER>> A glider is a fixed wing aircraft that is supported in flight by the dynamic reaction of the air against its lifting surfaces, and whose free flight does not depend on an engine. Most gliders do not have an engine, although motor glider have small engines for extending their flight when necessary by sustaining the altitude (normally a sailplane is on a continuously descending slope) with some being powerful enough to take off self-launch.
Fig- DG Flugzeugbau DG-800 Weight- 156Kg
Fig- Sandlin Goat Weight-70 Kg
Fig- Waco CG-4A Weight- 1769 Kg
5. CONVERTIPLANE>> A convertiplane is defined by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI or World Air Sports Federation) as an aircraft which uses rotor power for vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) and converts to fixed-wing lift in normal flight. In the US it is further classified as a sub-type of powered lift.
Fig- USAF CV-22 Weight- 15030Kg
Fig- Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight Weight- 7047 Kg
List of some Convertiplane weight- Convertiplane Weight List
Also there are some different types of aircraft like-
6. Paramotors-
Paramotor is the generic name for the harness and propulsive portion of a powered paraglider ("PPG"). There are two basic types of paramotors: foot launch and wheel launch. Foot launch models consist of a frame with harness, fuel tank, engine, and propeller. A hoop with protective netting primarily keeps lines out of the propeller. The unit is worn like a large backpack to which a Paraglider is attached through carabinersWheel launch units either come as complete units with their own motor, or as an add-on to a foot launch paramotor. They usually have 3 (trike) or 4 (quad) wheels, with seats for one or two occupants. These should not be confused with powered parachutes which are generally much heavier, more powerful, and have different steering.
The average weight of these parameters are generally near about 160Kg.
7. Hot Air Balloon-
A hot air balloon is a lighter than air, aircraft consisting of a bag, called an envelope, which contains heated air. Suspended beneath is a gondola or wicker basket(in some long-distance or high-altitude balloons, a capsule), which carries passengers and a source of heat, in most cases an open flame caused by burning liquid propane.
Nearly their weight is arround 400kg.
STUDY 2: Difference Between Ground Speed and Air Speed
Ground Speed>> The ground speed is how fast an airplane is traveling, relative to a fixed point on the ground. It is the speed of how fast an airplane's shadow would move across the land. If there's a strong wind pushing an aircraft, that's reflected in the ground speed.
Air Speed>> Airspeed is how fast an airplane is really flying strictly under its own power, which is the actual velocity of the aircraft.
| GROUND SPEED | AIR SPEED |
| 1. Ground speed is the speed of the aeroplane relative to the earth surface. |
1. Air speed is the speed of aeroplane relative to the air it is flying in. |
| 2. Ground speed determines how fast an aircraft will get to its destination. |
2. Air speed determines whether there is enough airflow around an aircraft to make it fly. |
| 3. Ground speed is the sum of air speed and wind speed. |
3. Air speed is independent of ground speed. |
Fig- Ground Speed
In calculation of Ground speed and Air speed , the wind speed is the main factor. Depending on the direction and magnitude of Wind speed the relative ground speed and Air speed is calculated.
Fig- 1 Fig- 2
For Example- If Air speed of an aircraft is 500km/h, where as the wind speed is 100km/h in the same direction of air speed. Then the ground speed will be (500+100)= 600km/h, which is explained in Fig-2. But if the wind speed of 100km/h is in the opposite direction of air speed , then the ground speed will be (500-100)= 400km/h, which is explianed above in Fig-1.
STUDY 3: Not Recommended to Use Aircraft Engine Power to Move It on The Ground at Airport
For movement on the ground the aircraft uses it own engine power, which is called taxing.
Although many aircrafts are capable of moving in backward using reverse thrust, as result the jet blast or prop wash might cause damage to the terminal building or equipment. Engine close to ground may also blow sand and debris forward and then suck them into the engine, causing damage to the engine. Therefore there are pushback trucks in the airport. A pushback truck lifts the front weel of the aircraft, their role in most airports is to move the aircraft away from the parking spot on to the taxiways, which is called towing.
Unwanted consequences mainly arising from the unintended movement of the aircraft during engine running.
i) Effectively a loss of control can happen, especially during high power engine running. Damage can occur to the aircraft itself, other aircraft nearby or to airside structures. ii) There is a risk of injury to ground support personnel who may be in relatively close proximity to the aircraft. iii) It is easier for truck driver to see the surroundings better than the pilot sitting in the cockpit with limited window. The pushback driver knows the airport better than the pilot. iv) It also saves fuel. virgin Atlantic had proposed a new system in which pushback truck will move the aircraft all the way to runway to save fuel and reduce impact of environment. v) The plane engines are very loud. When more than one plane will add up their sound, than it will not be pleasent for passangers and others near airport.
STUDY 4: Pushing Aircraft to Runway When Its Ready to Take Off
TOWING>> In the parking areas, where taxing the aircraft is not practical or is unsafe, such as moving aircraft in and out of mainteance hangars, or moving aircraft that are not under their own power or moving backward, then towing of aircraft is performed using the power of a specialized ground vehicle attached to or supporting the nose landing gear. The traditional method of allowing the ground vehicle to move an aircraft is to attach it to the aircraft nose landing gear by means of towbar.
As the pilot can't see what is behind the aircraft, steering is done by pushback tractor driver and depending on the aircraft type and airline procedure, a bypass pin may be temporarily installed into the nose gear to disconnect it from the aircraft's normal steering mechanism. Once the towing is completed, the towbar is disconnected and the aircraft can taxiing forward under its own power.
TAXIING>> Taxiing is the movement of an aircraft on the ground under its own power while on the suface. The aircraft always moves following the yellow lines, to avoid collision with the surrounding buildings, vehicle or other aircrafts. The taxiing motion has a speed limit. Before making turn the pilot reduces speed further to prevent tire skids just like other vehicles. The reason for taxing is to reach the vehicle into runway or from runway to terminal.
Following the taxiway aircraft reaches the runway. Takeoff is the phase of flight in which an aircraft goes through a transition from moving along the ground (taxiing) to flying in the air, usually starting on a runway. Usually the engines are run at full power during takeoff. Following the taxi motion, the aircraft stops at the starting line of the runway. Before takeoff, the engines, particularly piston engines, are routinely run up at high power to check for engine-related problems. This makes a considerable noise. When the pilot releases the brakes, the aircraft starts accelerating rapidly until the necessary speed for take-off is achieved.
The takeoff speed required varies with air density, aircraft weight, and aircraft configuration (flap and/or slat position, as applicable). Air density is affected by factors such as field elevation and air temperature.
STUDY 5: About Take Off Power, Tyre Design, Rolling Resistance, Tyre Pressure, Brake Forces When Landing
(i)Take Off Power>> Takeoff is the phase of flight in which an aircraft leaves the ground and becomes airborne. For aircraft that take off horizontally, this usually involves starting with a transition and moving along the ground on a runway. For light weight aircraft, usually full power is used during takeoff. Large transport catagory (airliner) aircraft may use a reduced power for takeoff, where less than full power is applied in order to prolong engine life, reduce maintenance costs and reduce noise emissions. In some cases, the power used can then be increased to increase the performance. Before takeoff, the engines, particularly piston engines are routinely run up at high power to check for engine-related problems.
An airplane is motionless at the starting of a runway. This is denoted by location O. The pilot releases the brakes and pushes the throttle to maximum takeoff power, and the airplane accelerates down the runway. At some distance from its starting point, the airplane lifts into the air. The distance the airplane cover along the runway before it lifts into the air is called the ground roll (sg). The total takeoff distance also includes the extra distance covered over the ground after the airplane is airborne but before it clears an obstacle of 50 ft for military aircraft and 35 ft for commercial aircraft. This is denoted by sa. The sum of sg and sa is the total takeoff distance.
Figure bove shows the "power curves" for induced power, parasite power, and total power (the sum of induced power and parasite power). Again, the induced power goes as 1/speed and the parasite power goes as the speed . At low speed the power requirements of flight are dominated by the induced power. The slower one flies the less air is diverted and thus the angle of attack must be increased to increase the vertical velocity of that air. Pilots practice flying on the "backside of the power curve" so that they recognize that the angle of attack and the power required to stay in the air at very low speeds are considerable.
(ii)Tyre Design>> An aircraft tire is designed to withstand extremely heavy loads for short duration of time. The number of tires required for aircraft increases with the weight of the aircraft, as the weight of the airplane needs to be distributed more evenly. For example -A Boeing 737NG & 737MAX uses 6 wheels, Boeing 787 uses 10 wheels, Boeing 777 uses 14 wheels and Airbus A380 uses 22 wheels.
Fig- Tires on the wheels of a bogie on a Boeing 777
Aircraft tires also include fusible plugs (which are assembled on the inside of the wheels), designed to melt at a certain temperature. Tires often overheat if maximum braking is applied during an aborted takeoff or an emergency landing. The fuses provide a safer failure mode that prevents tire explosions by deflating in a controlled manner, thus minimizing damage to aircraft and objects in the surrounding environment.
Designing aircraft tires is a very intense undertaking. Carcass plies are used to form the tire. They are sometimes called casing plies. An aircraft tyre is constructed for the purpose it serves.
(i)They support the weight of an aircraft while it is on the ground.
(ii)It also provides the necessary traction for braking and stopping of an aeroplane.
(iii)Tyre also helps to absorb the shock of landing and provide cushioning the roughness of takeoff, roll-out, and taxi operations.
Once an aircraft manufacturer goes to the tire manufacturer with the size and weight requirements, the tire manufacturer begins the process of designing a tire that meets the needs of the aircraft manufacturer as well as all regulatory requirements — including foreign regulations in many cases. Engineers are challenged with designing tires with cool running, heat-resistant materials while simultaneously exceeding tire service requirements.
Fig- Changing a wheel on a Lockheed P-3 Orion aircraft
Two types of tires are used in aircraft applications — bias-ply tires and radial tires. Although both types of tires share some similarities in design, there are difference between a radial tyre and bias (cross-ply) tyre is the lay of the plies within the tyre carcass. The remainder of the tyre is very similar in construction in both.
Fig- Design of Aircraft Tyre
Breakers: Breakers are reinforcing plies of rubber-coated fabric placed under the buff line cushion to protect casing plies and strengthen and stabilize the tread area. They are considered an integral part of the casing construction.
Tread: The tread is made of rubber mixed with other additives to obtain the desired level of toughness, durability, and resistance to wear. The tread pattern is designed to aircraft operational requirements, with the ribbed tread design used widely due to its good traction under varying runway conditions.
Sidewalls: The sidewall is a protective layer of rubber that covers the outer casing ply. It extends from the tread edge to the bead area.
Casing Plies: Alternate layers of rubber-coated fabric (running at opposite angles to one another) provide the strength of the tire
Chafers: A protective layer of rubber and/or fabric located between the casing plies and wheel to minimize chafing.
Ply Turnups: The casing plies are anchored by wrapping them around the wire beads, thus forming the ply turnups.
Flippers: Layers of rubberized fabric that help anchor the bead wires to the casing and improve the durability of the tire.
Wire Beads: Hoops of high tensile strength steel wire that anchor the casing plies and provide a firm mounting surface on the wheel. The outer edge of the bead that fits against the wheel flange is called the bead heel. The inner bead edge is called the bead toe.
Apex Strip: A wedge of rubber affixed to the top of the bead bundle.
Bead toe: It is the inner edge of the bead.
Bead heel: It is the outer edge of the heel.
Inner Liner: In tubeless tires, the liner is a layer of low permeability rubber that acts as a built-in tube and restricts gas from diffusing into the casing plies. In tube-type tires, a thinner liner is used to prevent tube chafing against the inside ply.
Caroass Plies: Layers of rubber-coated fabric piles which have the cords running from bead to bead. These provide the tire with strength in the sidewall area.
Tread Reinforcing Ply: One or more layers of fabric that strengthens and stabilizes the tread area for high-speed operation. It also serves as a reference for the buffing process when tires are retreaded.
Buff Line Cushion: The buff line cushion is made of rubber compound to enhance the adhesion between the tread reinforcing ply and the breakers or casing plies. It is of sufficient thickness to allow for the removal of the old tread when the tire is retreaded.
Tubeless tyres are more advantageous over tube-type. There is no longer the use of tube-type tyre in recent aviation.
Aircraft tyres must have an approved speed and load rating and have sufficient clearance when retracted through landing gear to allow for tyre growth. Tyre growth is the increase in the size of the tyre due to centrifugal forces at high speed.
Retreading – Retreading is methods of restoring a worn tyre by renewing the tread area or by renewing the tread area plus one or both sidewalls. Repairs are included in the tyre retreading process.
Load Rating – Load rating is the maximum permissible load at a specified inflation pressure.
Ply Rating – Ply Rating is used to identify the maximum recommended load rating and inflation pressure for a specified tyre. It is an index of tyre strength.
Speed Rating – The speed rating is the maximum takeoff speed to which the tyre has been tested.
Skid Depth – Skid depth is the distance between the tread surface and the deepest groove as measured in the mould.
Today’s tyres are conductive. Aircraft tyre are manufactured with tread rubber with conducting compounds to permit earthing of static charges.In early days when tyres were not sufficiently conductive, aircraft used to have a conductive strip hanging down from the axle of the landing gear. Upon landing, this strip would be the first part of the aircraft to touch the earth. This discharges any static electricity accumulated on the outer surfaces of the aircraft.
(iii)Rolling Resistance>>
In addition to the familier forces like thrust, weight, lift, drag there is a rolling resistance force FR caused by friction between tyre and ground. When aircraft is towing or taxing to pushed it into runway or when take off roll is happenning, the rolling resistance force act against the traction force of the aircraft. This rolling resistance force depends on many factors like surface of the road, roughness of the road, dry or wet condition of the road, tyre pressure, tyre material, tyre temperature, thread pattern of the tyre etc, which determines the rolling resistance force.
Rolling resistance force = FR in Newton Rolling resistance co-efficient = urr (It varries for different types of environment)
| urr Typical Values For Aircraft- | ||
| SURFACE | BRAKES OFF | BRAKES ON |
| Dry concrete/ asphalt | 0.03-0.05 | 0.3-0.5 |
| Wet concrete/ asphalt | 0.05 | 0.15-0.3 |
| Icy concrete/ asphalt | 0.02 | 0.06-0.10 |
| Hard turf | 0.05 | 0.4 |
| Firm dirt | 0.04 | 0.3 |
| Soft turf | 0.07 | 0.2 |
| Wet grass | 0.08 | 0.2 |
Rolling resistance force Frr = urr * m * g Where m = total mass of the aircraft(Actual mass+Pay load) in kg and g = gravitational constant, that is 9.8 m/s^2 .
(iv)TYRE PRESSURE>> The pressure generally is vert high in an aircraft tire to reduce the rolling resistance and to withstand the weight. Usually the tyre pressure will be arround 190 to 320 psi based on the type of aircraft. Aircraft tyres are usually inflated with nitrogen to minimize expansion and contraction from extreme changes in ambient temperature and pressure experienced during flight.
According to U.S. Federal Aviation Administration(FAA) Technical Standard Order TSO-C62c, the maximum allowable tire pressure loss is 5% per day.
Fig- Daily measuring of tyre presuure
For example-
Fig- Boeing 777
A Boeing 777 fully loaded weighs around 700,000 pounds and has fourteen tires. Therefore, if each of those tires is reacting roughly the same force, then that is 50,000 pounds per tire. The tire pressure is 200 psi. Therefore there should be 250 square inches of surface contact area for each tire with the ground (250 * 200 = 50,000).
(v)Brake Forces When Landing>> Stopping an aircraft landing at 180-200 mph requires a lot of braking force. To do this, the aircraft has brake unit on each of the wheels on the main gear assembly. On landing, pilots should use aerodynamic braking by applying extra back-pressure on the stick or yoke. Extreme caution should be used when applying brakes at any significant speed, and only when the end of the runway is quickly approaching. Never step on the brakes to make a runway exit. Applying the brakes at too high a speed could burn the tires, wear out the brakes, or result in a ground loop or swerve.
Aircraft braking systems include:
- Aircraft Disc Brake: In the landing gear it is used to brake the wheels while touching the ground. These brakes are operated hydraulically. In most modern aircraft they are activated by the top section of the rudder pedals ("toe brakes"). In some older aircraft the bottom section is used instead ("heel brakes"). Levers are used in a few aircraft. Most aircraft are capable of differential braking.
- Thrust Reverse: that allow thrust from the engines to be used to slow the aircraft.
- Air Brake: It is dedicated flight control surface, that work by increasing drag.
- Drogue Parachute: It is used by several former and current military and civilian aircraft (examples include the American B-52 and the soviet Tu-134 and Tu-144).
STUDY 6: Calculating The Force and Power Required to Push / Pull An Aircraft by a Towing Vehicle To push or pull an aircraft by a towing vehicle, 3 type of forces will act on that vehicle. Those are -(i) Rolling resistance force (ii) Aerodynamic drag force and (iii) Hill climbing force.
(i) Rolling resistance force(Frr) : Rolling resistance is the force resisting the motion when a body rolls on a surface. It is the friction force that is needed to be overcome to move a vehicle. The kinetic energy of the wheels is partially converted into heat. The rolling resistance is proportional to the normal force perpendicular to the rolling wheel and is approximated by the rolling resistance coefficient urr. Therefore, Equation that can be used for the rolling resistance force of the entire system is-
Frr = urr * m * g where, urr= Rolling resistance co-efficient (It depends on the tire material, tire structure, tire temperature, road roughness, road material etc.) m= Total mass of the vehicle (vehicle mass + payload) in kg g = gravitational constant , that is 9.8 m/s^2
| urr of Car for different condition- | |
| CONDITION | urr |
| Tires on concrete or asphalt | 0.013 |
| Tires on rolled gravel | 0.02 |
| Tar macadam | 0.025 |
| Unpaved road | 0.05 |
| Field | 0.1 - 0.35 |
Here in this case for towing vehicle for aircraft urr= 0.013
(ii) Aerodynamic drag force(Fad) : Aerodynamic drag force is the force which is required to keep a vehicle moving. There are two component of this force , one is shape drag (due to the shape of the vehicle) and another is skin friction (due to friction between air and skin of the vehicle). When the vehicle moves the velocity of air near boundary is higher than the air surrounding. Both the tug and the aircraft will experience some aerodynamic drag. For completeness, the aerodynamic drag force caused by the aircraft and towing vehicle can be given by Equation below-
Fad = (1/2) * ρ * V^2 * A * (Cd_t + Cd_a) where, ρ = Air density, that is normally 1.25 kg/m^3 A = Frontal area of the vehicle in m^2 Cd_t = Air drag co-efficient of towing vehicle (It depends on frontal area, shape, protrusions, ducts, air passage etc.) Cd_a = Air drag co-efficient of aircraft (It depends on frontal area, shape, protrusions, ducts, air passage etc.) v = Velocity of the vehicle in m/s
With regard to the drag equation, the term A simply refers to some reference area. For airplanes, this is generally the planform area of the wing The designers design an aircraft in such a way that the reference area is optimal. So, for calculation this has been neglected.
| Cd for different types of vehicle- | |
| VEHICLE TYPE | Cd |
| Open Convertible | 0.5 - 0.7 |
| Van body | 0.5 - 0.7 |
| Ponton body | 0.4 - 0.55 |
| wedge- shaped body, head lamps and bumpers are integrated into the body, covered undeready optimized cooling air flow |
0.3 - 0.4 |
| Motor cycle | 0.6 - 0.7 |
| racing car | 0.2 - 0.25 |
In this case air drag co-efficient for towing vehicle(Cd_t)= 0.5 and for aircraft or payload(Cd_a)= 0.045.
(iii) Hill climbing force(Fhc) : Hill climbing force is the force needed to move the vehicle in up gradient. To Hill Climbing force the expression of the equation is given below-
Fhc = m * g * sinφ where, m = Total mass of the vehicle(vehicle mass + payload) in kg g = Gravitational constant that is 9.8 m/s^2 φ = up gradient angle or inclination angle in radian
In this case up gradient angle(φ) = 0, as there is no inclination.
Push/Pull Power Calculation of Towing Vehicle- Let's assume, the towing vehicle mass = 50000 Kg the aircraft mass or payload on towing vehicle = 183700 Kg total mass of the vehicle(m) = (50000+183700) = 233700 Kg towing vehicle fontal area(A) = 20 m^2 speed of the vehicle(V) = 30 Km/hr = 8.333 m/s
Rolling Resistance Force(Frr) = urr * m * g =0.013 * (50000+183700) * 9.8 =29,773.38 N
Aerodynamic Drag Force(Fad) = (1/2) * ρ * V^2 * A * (Cd_t + Cd_a) = (1/2) * 1.225 * (2.778)^2 * 20 * (0.5+0.045) = 51.514 N
Hill Climbing Force(Fhc) = m * g * sinφ =(50000+183700) * 9.8 * sin0 = 0 N
Total required traction power(Tf) = Frr + Fad + Fhc =29773.38 + 51.514 + 0 =29824.894 N
Push/Pull Power Calculation of Towing Vehicle- Excel Power Calculator
STUDY 7: Design An Electric Powertrain to Fulfill Aircraft Towing Application
Table for the necessary assumed parameters-
| Assumtion For Powertrain Design- | |
| Aircraft Mass | 183700 Kg |
| Towing Vehicle Mass | 50000 Kg |
| Rolling Resistance Co-efficient | 0.013 |
| Air Density | 1.225 kg/m^3 |
|
Towing Vehicle Drag Co-efficient |
0.5 |
| Aircraft Drag Co-efficient | 0.045 |
| Frontal area | 20 m^2 |
| Inclination Angle | 0 rad |
| Tyre Pressure | 203 PSI/14 bar |
| Towing Velocity(V) |
10km/h =2.778m/s |
| Towing Time(t) | 2 min |
| Radius of the towing vehicle wheel |
0.38 m |
Therefore from the excel power calculator we have got the necessary Traction force(F) quantity that is = 29824.89427 N
and Required power(P) = F * V = 29824.894 * 2.778 =82846.928 W = 82.846 KW As we know Torque(T) = Force(F) * Wheel radious(r)
So, from the above equation we have got the required torque(T) = 29824.894 * 0.38 = 11333.45972 N-m.
Required Energy(E) for towing application based on the assumed time, that is E = P * t = 82.846 * (120/3600) = 2.761 KWh
For this application an Induction motor or a BLDC can be used with a proper gear system.
Fig- Induction Asynchronous motor
| Induction Motor Rating- | ||||||
| Output Mechanical Power |
Horse Power |
Input In term of Mechanical Power |
No of Phases |
Input Voltage | Input Current | Efficiency |
| 90 KW | 120 H.P | 95.642 KW | 3 | 380 V | 163.3 A | 94.10% |
| 400 V | 155.1 A | |||||
| 415 V | 149.5 A |
The motor output power is the input power of the towing vehicle so to obtain maximum speed, the duty cycle needed is calculated as below- Duty Cycle = Output Power/Input Power = (82.846/90)*100 = (0.921*100)%, so the duty cycle will be 92.1% The duty cycle range to control the aircraft speed from zero to highest is from 0 to 92.1 %
Towing Vehicle simulink Powertrain Block model- 
Though a Induction motor has been choosed for this application but here this simulink model is built based on a DC motor.
Torque Characteristic- 
Here torque is in unit of N-m.
Speed Characteristic- 
Here speed is in unit of rad/sec.
Block Diagram of Powertrain for Towing Vehicle- 
Electric Vehicles, consist of a battery, connected to an electric motor (either AC or DC) via an inverter and a motor controller. As automotive batteries generally operate on DC current, while the gird operates AC, a converter is needed to transfer power to the battery.One of the key advantages of an EV is its much higher levels of energy efficiency. Typically an EV will achieve a system efficiency of 80% from battery to wheel (roughly 60% from grid to wheel), while with a conventional IC engine it’s more like 15-25%. This is largely due to the fact that an IC engine is a “heat engine” (i.e. it has to burn fuel and produce heat to operate) and much of all that heat is simply wasted.
References-
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft
2. https://www.britannica.com
3. https://www.grc.nasa.gov
4. https://science.howstuffworks.com
5. https://aviation.stackexchange.com
6. https://www.skybrary.aero
7. http://www.aeroman.org
8. https://webstor.srmist.edu.in
9. https://www.aviationpros.com
10. https://www.aviationhunt.com
11. https://arc.aiaa.org
12. https://flightsafety.org
13. https://code7700.com
14. https://repository.tudelft.nl
15. https://www.nata.aero/agso/astgcache/1a96deb7-7c34-46db-ace7-df80a2d693ce.pdf 16. https://skill-lync.com