Project-1: Powertrain for aircraft in runways

Answer 1:

Aircraft	Empty Weight	Max Fuel Weight	Max Cargo Weight	Max Gross Takeoff Weight
Antanov AN-225	628,000 lbs 285,000 kg	661,400 lbs 300,000 kg	417,000 lbs 190,000 kg	1,411,000 lbs 640,000 kg
Airbus A380-800	611,000 lbs 277,000 kg	560,000 lbs 254,000 kg	185,000 lbs 84,000 kg	1,268,000 lbs 575,000 kg
Boeing 747-800	485,300 lbs 220,100 kg	427,400 lbs 194,000 kg	295,000 lbs 134,000 kg	987,000 lbs 447,700 kg
Airbus A340-500	370,000 lbs 168,000 kg	386,300 lbs 175,000 kg	119,000 lbs 54,000 kg	820,000 lbs 372,000 kg
Boeing 777-300ER	370,000 lbs 168,000 kg	320,800 lbs 145,500 kg	148,000 lbs 67,100 kg	776,000 lbs 352,000 kg
Boeing 787-10	299,000 lbs 135,500 kg	223,500 lbs 101,500 kg	126,300 lbs 57,300 kg	560,000 lbs 254,000 kg
Boeing 737-900	98,500 lbs 44,700 kg	53,100 lbs 24,000 kg	44,600 lbs 20,200 kg	187,000 lbs 85,000 kg
Airbus A320-100	93,900 lbs 42,600 kg	48,700 lbs 22,100 kg	44,000 lbs 20,000 kg	150,000 lbs 68,000 kg
Embraer 190	63,500 lbs 28,800 kg	28,600 lbs 13,000 kg	28,800 lbs 13,100 kg	106,000 lbs 48,000 kg
Gulfstream G650	54,000 lbs 24,500 kg	48,200 lbs 21,900 kg	6,500 lbs 3,000 kg	100,000 lbs 45,200 kg
Bombardier CRJ900	48,160 lbs 21,850 kg	19,600 lbs 8,900 kg	6,075 lbs 2,760 kg	80,500 lbs 36,500 kg
Bombardier Q400	39,300 lbs 17,800 kg	11,700 lbs 5,300 kg	18,700 lbs 8,500 kg	62,000 lbs 28,000 kg
Learjet 75	13,900 lbs 6,300 kg	6,060 lbs 2,750 kg	2,900 lbs 1,300 kg	21,500 lbs 9,700 kg
Cessna Citation CJ4	10,300 lbs 4,700 kg	5,800 lbs 2,650 kg	2,200 lbs 1,000 kg	17,200 lbs 7,800 kg
Beechcraft King Air B100	7,100 lbs 3,200 kg	3,200 lbs 1,450 kg	4,150 lbs 1,900 kg	12,000 lbs 5,400 kg
Diamond DA50 RG	3,200 lbs 1,450 kg	340 lbs 155 lbs	1,250 lbs 560 kg	4,400 lbs 2,000 kg
Beechcraft Bonanza G36	2,500 lbs 1,150 kg	450 lbs 200 kg	850 lbs 385 kg	3,660 lbs 1,660 kg
Cessna 206H	2,200 lbs 990 kg	520 lbs 235 kg	1,150 lbs 520 kg	3,600 lbs 1,630 kg
Sirrus SR22	2,250 lbs 1,000 kg	485 lbs 220 kg	950 lbs 430 kg	3,600 lbs 1,630 kg
Cessna 172R	1,700 lbs 770 kg	380 lbs 170 kg	560 lbs 255 kg	2,425 lbs 1,100 kg

Answer 2:

Airspeed:

True airspeed is  the speed at which an aircraft is moving relative to the air it is flying in. As such, it’s also the speed at which the air is flowing around the aircraft’s wings. airspeed is what determines whether there is enough airflow around an aircraft to make it fly,

Ground:

Ground speed, on the other hand, is the aircraft’s speed relative to the ground. One thing that should be noted here is that it’s its horizontal rather than vertical speed – an aircraft climbing completely vertically would have a ground speed of zero.Ground speed is what determines how fast an aircraft will get to its destination.

Answer 3:

Aircraft towing equipment is typically used for the towing and pushback process to avoid some of the significant hazards posed by aircraft engines. When an aircraft's engine is activated, the thrust can create a high-speed wind that can easily cause damage to the airport terminal, surrounding ground vehicles, jetway, baggage and most importantly, ground personnel.

Suppressing the use of engines is especially important when towing a large aircraft, as their more powerful thrust capabilities can become exceedingly dangerous. Engine thrust can easily send any loose items airborne, turn the tiniest grains of dust into hazardous projectiles and create debris that can cause damage to multi-million dollar engines. Additionally, aircraft engines consume a great deal of fuel and generate extreme noise that can be harmful to ground personnel. Using a pushback tug for aircraft is simply a more economical and safer option than running the engines.

Answer 4:

is the movement of an aircraft on the ground, under its own power, in contrast to towing or push-back where the aircraft is moved by a tug. The aircraft usually moves on wheels, but the term also includes aircraft with skis or floats  (for water-based travel).

The power for taxiing comes from the engines itself. If it is a propeller powered aircraft, the propeller provides thrust and pulls the aircraft, like it would in air. If it is a jet engine, the exhaust air that comes out of the engine creates a forward force due to Newton's third law and moves the airplane.

Airliners have nose wheel steering, controlled by a cockpit control called a tiller. The tiller allows nose wheel to rotate at quite extreme angles making tighter turns possible. It also reduces the fuel consumption as you do not need much engine power during taxiing. If rudders were used, the power has to be increased to make sure sufficient air flows over the rudder surface to make it effective.

Once on the take off roll and the airplane gains sufficient speed i.e. enough air flows over the rudders, pilots go back to using the rudder pedals to maintain the centre line.

Some large airplanes with multi wheel main gears have a tendency to scrub the tyres on the tarmac when nose wheel is steered. To counter this problem, an automatic main gear steering is inbuilt in the aircraft. This makes the main gears turn the opposite direction to that of the nose wheel, greatly decreasing the wear on the tyres.

Answer 5:

Take off power:

T – Thrust of propulsion system pushing aircraft along runway.

D – Aerodynamic Drag of vehicle resisting the aircraft motion.

F – Rolling resistance friction due to the contact of wheels or skids on the ground.

During take-off run the imbalance in these forces will produce an acceleration along the runway.

dv/dt =  T - D - F /m

The procedure for take-off will be that the vehicle will accelerate until it reaches a safe initial flying speed. The pilot can then rotate the vehicle to an attitude to produce climb lift and it will ascend from the ground. The determination of this safe flying speed or rotation speed, V_R, is a critical factor in determining take-off performance.

For safety reasons V_R is usually determined as being 1.1 × V_STALL

V_{STALL :}  is the lowest speed that the aircraft can be flown before the airflow starts to separate from wings as the angle of attack becomes too great. The wing is assumed in this case to be in take-off configuration or "clean".

It can be calculated based on knowledge of the aircraft take-off configuration and hence the maximum achievable lift coefficient C_L(max). As shown in the previous section , to maintain level flight the lift produced must equal the weight, hence the stall speed can be calculated as,

rolling resistance:

Rolling resistance, sometimes called rolling friction or rolling drag, is the force resisting the motion when a body (such as a ball, tire, or wheel) rolls on a surface. It is mainly caused by  effects; thnon elastic at is, not all the energy needed for deformation (or movement) of the wheel, roadbed, etc., is recovered when the pressure is removed. Two forms of this are hysterisis losses , and permanent plastic deformation of the object or the surface (e.g. soil). Another cause of rolling resistance lies in the slippage between the wheel and the surface, which dissipates energy. 

The rolling resistance can be expressed as

F_r = c W                                   (1)

where

F_r = rolling resistance or rolling friction (N, lb_f)

c = rolling resistance coefficient - dimensionless (coefficient of rolling friction - CRF)

W = m a_g

    = normal force - or weight - of the body (N, lb_f)

m = mass of body (kg, lb)

a_g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s², 32.174 ft/s²)